This collection of Important Scientists and Their Discoveries covers major global and Indian scientists whose contributions are frequently useful for Science GK, General Science, competitive exams, entrance tests, civil services examinations, academic preparation, and global job exams. It includes internationally recognised scientists such as Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton, Marie Curie, Charles Darwin, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac, Richard Feynman, Watson and Crick, Rosalind Franklin, Alexander Fleming, Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Edward Jenner, Gregor Mendel, Edwin Hubble, Stephen Hawking, Peter Higgs, Jennifer Doudna, Emmanuelle Charpentier, Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman, along with many other scientists from Europe, the USA, Japan, China and other parts of the world.
Top 15 Mistakes to Avoid for
Government Jobs Abroad
Important Scientists and Their Discoveries for Global Exams
The list also includes important Indian scientists such as C. V. Raman, Homi J. Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, S. N. Bose, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Meghnad Saha, Jagadish Chandra Bose, P. C. Ray and M. S. Swaminathan. Their scientific contributions are relevant for students and jobseekers preparing for Global Science GK, Important Scientists and Discoveries, Famous Scientists, Scientific Discoveries, Physics GK, Chemistry GK, Biology GK, Astronomy GK, Nobel Prize Scientists, World Scientists, Indian Scientists, General Knowledge Questions, Competitive Exams and Science Career Examinations. For example, C. V. Raman is associated with the Raman Effect, while Vikram Sarabhai played a pioneering role in shaping India's space programme.
Worldwide Scientists – 500 Essential Questions & Answers for Students and Jobseekers
Exam Preparation Tips for Beginners:
Study Smart & Crack Exams Fast
Questions and Answers
1. Who is considered the father of modern physics?
Albert Einstein is widely regarded as the father of modern physics due to his theory of relativity and contributions to quantum theory.
2. What is Albert Einstein’s most famous equation?
E = mc², which shows the equivalence of mass and energy.
3. In which year did Einstein publish the special theory of relativity?
1905.
4. What Nobel Prize did Albert Einstein win and for what?
He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for the photoelectric effect.
5. Who discovered the laws of motion and universal gravitation?
Sir Isaac Newton.
6. What is Newton’s first law of motion?
An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force (law of inertia).
7. What major book did Isaac Newton publish in 1687?
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Principia).
8. Who is known as the father of the atomic bomb?
J. Robert Oppenheimer (scientific director of the Manhattan Project).
9. Who discovered radioactivity?
Henri Becquerel (1896), later extensively studied by Marie and Pierre Curie.
10. Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize?
Marie Curie (Physics, 1903).
11. How many Nobel Prizes did Marie Curie win?
Two – Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911).
12. What elements did Marie Curie discover?
Polonium and radium.
13. Who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system?
Nicolaus Copernicus.
14. What book did Copernicus publish in 1543?
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
15. Who improved the telescope and discovered Jupiter’s moons?
Galileo Galilei.
16. What were the four largest moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo called?
The Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
17. Who formulated the three laws of planetary motion?
Johannes Kepler.
18. What is Kepler’s first law?
Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
19. Who is known as the father of modern chemistry?
Antoine Lavoisier.
20. What did Lavoisier discover about combustion?
That combustion involves oxygen (he named oxygen and hydrogen).
21. Who developed the periodic table of elements?
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869).
22. How did Mendeleev arrange the elements?
By increasing atomic weight and grouping by similar properties, leaving gaps for undiscovered elements.
23. Who discovered penicillin?
Alexander Fleming (1928).
24. What type of organism produces penicillin?
The mold Penicillium notatum (now Penicillium chrysogenum).
25. Who is credited with the discovery of the structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick (1953), based on work by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.
26. What technique did Rosalind Franklin use to study DNA?
X-ray crystallography (Photo 51).
27. Who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin.
28. What is the title of Darwin’s most famous book?
On the Origin of Species (1859).
29. Who independently arrived at the theory of natural selection around the same time as Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace.
30. Who discovered the electron?
J.J. Thomson (1897).
31. Who proposed the planetary model of the atom?
Ernest Rutherford.
32. What experiment led Rutherford to the nuclear model of the atom?
The gold-foil experiment.
33. Who developed the quantum theory of the atom?
Niels Bohr.
34. What is the Bohr model of the atom?
Electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete energy levels.
35. Who is known as the father of quantum mechanics?
Max Planck (and later contributions by Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Dirac).
36. What constant is named after Max Planck?
Planck’s constant (h).
37. Who formulated the uncertainty principle?
Werner Heisenberg.
38. What does the Heisenberg uncertainty principle state?
It is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and momentum of a particle.
39. Who developed the wave equation for quantum mechanics?
Erwin Schrödinger.
40. What is Schrödinger’s famous thought experiment?
Schrödinger’s cat (illustrating quantum superposition).
41. Who predicted the existence of antimatter?
Paul Dirac.
42. Who discovered the positron?
Carl Anderson (1932).
43. Who is known for the theory of general relativity?
Albert Einstein (1915).
44. What does general relativity describe?
Gravity as the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.
45. Who confirmed the bending of light by gravity predicted by general relativity?
Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse.
46. Who discovered the expansion of the universe?
Edwin Hubble.
47. What is Hubble’s law?
The recessional velocity of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from us.
48. Who proposed the Big Bang theory?
Georges Lemaître (and later developed by George Gamow and others).
49. Who discovered cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (1965).
50. Who developed the mathematical framework for black holes?
Karl Schwarzschild (and later Stephen Hawking, Roger Penrose).
51. Who predicted Hawking radiation?
Stephen Hawking.
52. What is Hawking radiation?
Thermal radiation predicted to be emitted by black holes due to quantum effects near the event horizon.
53. Who co-discovered the structure of insulin?
Frederick Sanger (among other contributions; he also sequenced DNA).
54. How many Nobel Prizes did Frederick Sanger win?
Two (both in Chemistry – 1958 and 1980).
55. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee (while at CERN).
56. In which year was the World Wide Web proposed?
1989.
57. Who is known as the father of the computer?
Charles Babbage (analytical engine).
58. Who is considered the first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
59. Who developed the concept of the Turing machine?
Alan Turing.
60. What is the Turing Test?
A test of a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from a human.
61. Who co-invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley (Bell Labs).
62. What year was the transistor invented?
1947.
63. Who discovered X-rays?
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1895).
64. Who discovered the neutron?
James Chadwick (1932).
65. Who proposed the liquid-drop model of the nucleus?
Niels Bohr and John Wheeler (among others).
66. Who led the team that first split the atom?
Ernest Rutherford (and later Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann for nuclear fission).
67. Who discovered nuclear fission?
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (1938), interpreted by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.
68. Who was Lise Meitner?
Austrian-Swedish physicist who co-explained nuclear fission; she never received the Nobel Prize for it.
69. Who developed the cyclotron?
Ernest Lawrence.
70. Who is known as the father of modern genetics?
Gregor Mendel.
71. What did Mendel study?
Inheritance patterns in pea plants (laws of segregation and independent assortment).
72. Who discovered the ABO blood group system?
Karl Landsteiner.
73. Who developed the polio vaccine?
Jonas Salk (inactivated vaccine) and later Albert Sabin (oral vaccine).
74. Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting and Charles Best (with contributions from John Macleod and James Collip).
75. Who is known for the germ theory of disease?
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
76. What is Pasteurisation?
A process of heating liquids to kill harmful bacteria, developed by Louis Pasteur.
77. Who developed the first successful vaccine (for smallpox)?
Edward Jenner.
78. Who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick.
79. What was Rosalind Franklin’s contribution to DNA research?
She produced the critical X-ray diffraction image (Photo 51) that revealed the helical structure.
80. Who developed CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier (key pioneers).
81. In which year did Doudna and Charpentier win the Nobel Prize?
2020 (Chemistry).
82. Who discovered the Higgs boson theoretically?
Peter Higgs (and independently others including François Englert).
83. When was the Higgs boson experimentally confirmed?
2012 at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider.
84. Who is known as the father of the Indian space program?
Vikram Sarabhai.
85. Who was A.P.J. Abdul Kalam?
Indian aerospace scientist and 11th President of India, known as the Missile Man of India.
86. Who developed the first successful airplane?
The Wright brothers (Orville and Wilbur Wright).
87. Who invented the telephone?
Alexander Graham Bell (and independently Elisha Gray).
88. Who is credited with inventing the light bulb?
Thomas Edison (practical long-lasting bulb; earlier work by others including Joseph Swan).
89. Who discovered electromagnetism?
Hans Christian Ørsted (and later developed by Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell).
90. Who formulated the laws of electromagnetism?
James Clerk Maxwell (Maxwell’s equations).
91. Who invented the electric motor?
Michael Faraday (and independently others).
92. Who discovered electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
93. Who is known as the father of nuclear physics?
Ernest Rutherford.
94. Who proposed the concept of the atom?
Ancient Greek philosophers (Democritus); modern atomic theory by John Dalton.
95. Who developed the modern atomic theory?
John Dalton.
96. Who discovered argon and other noble gases?
Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay.
97. Who invented the battery?
Alessandro Volta.
98. Who discovered the photoelectric effect?
Heinrich Hertz (observed); explained by Albert Einstein.
99. Who developed the special theory of relativity?
Albert Einstein (1905).
100. Who is known for the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics?
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.
101. Who was Richard Feynman?
American theoretical physicist known for quantum electrodynamics, Feynman diagrams, and the path-integral formulation of quantum mechanics.
102. What is a Feynman diagram?
A pictorial representation of the mathematical expressions that describe the behavior and interactions of subatomic particles.
103. Who formulated the Pauli exclusion principle?
Wolfgang Pauli.
104. What does the Pauli exclusion principle state?
No two identical fermions can occupy the same quantum state at the same time.
105. Who developed the first controlled nuclear reactor?
Enrico Fermi (Chicago Pile-1 in 1942).
106. Who is often called the father of the atomic age?
Enrico Fermi, for his pioneering work on nuclear reactors and nuclear physics.
107. Who proposed the quark model of matter?
Murray Gell-Mann and independently George Zweig.
108. What are quarks?
Elementary particles that combine to form protons, neutrons and other hadrons.
109. Who discovered the muon?
Carl Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer in 1936.
110. Who developed the Standard Model of particle physics?
A collaborative effort involving many scientists including Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg.
111. Who first predicted the existence of the neutrino?
Wolfgang Pauli in 1930.
112. Who experimentally confirmed the existence of the neutrino?
Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines in 1956.
113. Who developed the BCS theory of superconductivity?
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer.
114. Who discovered superconductivity?
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.
115. Who built the first working laser?
Theodore Maiman in 1960.
116. What does the word LASER stand for?
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
117. Who developed the maser, the forerunner of the laser?
Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow, along with independent work by others.
118. Who discovered graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov in 2004.
119. What is graphene?
A single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice with remarkable strength and conductivity.
120. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov in 2010 (Physics).
121. Who was C.V. Raman?
Indian physicist who discovered the Raman effect and won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics.
122. What is the Raman effect?
The inelastic scattering of light by molecules that causes a change in the wavelength of the scattered light.
123. Who was Homi J. Bhabha?
Indian nuclear physicist and founder of India’s nuclear research programme and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
124. Who is known as the father of the Indian nuclear programme?
Homi J. Bhabha.
125. Who was Satyendra Nath Bose?
Indian physicist who worked with Albert Einstein on Bose-Einstein statistics; particles called bosons are named after him.
126. What are bosons?
Particles that obey Bose-Einstein statistics and can occupy the same quantum state.
127. Who was Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar?
Indian-American astrophysicist who calculated the Chandrasekhar limit and received the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics.
128. What is the Chandrasekhar limit?
The maximum mass (about 1.4 solar masses) that a white dwarf star can have before collapsing.
129. Who was Meghnad Saha?
Indian astrophysicist famous for the Saha ionization equation used in stellar spectroscopy.
130. Who was Jagadish Chandra Bose?
Indian scientist who made early contributions to radio wave research and plant physiology.
131. Who was Prafulla Chandra Ray?
Indian chemist regarded as the father of chemical science in India and founder of Bengal Chemicals.
132. Who discovered the neutron?
James Chadwick in 1932.
133. Who proposed the liquid-drop model of the atomic nucleus?
Niels Bohr and John Archibald Wheeler.
134. Who discovered nuclear fission?
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, with theoretical interpretation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.
135. Who was Lise Meitner?
Austrian-Swedish physicist who co-explained nuclear fission but never received the Nobel Prize for the discovery.
136. Who invented the cyclotron?
Ernest Orlando Lawrence.
137. Who is known as the father of modern genetics?
Gregor Mendel.
138. What did Gregor Mendel study to establish the laws of inheritance?
Pea plants, discovering the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
139. Who discovered the ABO blood group system?
Karl Landsteiner.
140. Who developed the first successful polio vaccine?
Jonas Salk (inactivated vaccine); Albert Sabin later developed the oral vaccine.
141. Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting and Charles Best, with important contributions from John Macleod and James Collip.
142. Who is associated with the germ theory of disease?
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
143. What is pasteurisation?
A heat treatment process developed by Louis Pasteur to kill harmful microorganisms in liquids such as milk.
144. Who developed the first successful vaccine for smallpox?
Edward Jenner.
145. Who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, building on X-ray data from Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.
146. What technique did Rosalind Franklin use to study DNA?
X-ray crystallography; her famous Photo 51 provided key evidence for the helical structure.
147. Who developed CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier are the key pioneers.
148. In which year did Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier receive the Nobel Prize?
2020 (Chemistry).
149. Who theoretically predicted the Higgs boson?
Peter Higgs, along with François Englert and others.
150. When was the Higgs boson experimentally confirmed?
2012 at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.
151. Who is known as the father of the Indian space programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
152. Who was A.P.J. Abdul Kalam?
Indian aerospace scientist and 11th President of India, popularly known as the Missile Man of India.
153. Who built the first successful powered airplane?
The Wright brothers – Orville and Wilbur Wright.
154. Who is credited with inventing the telephone?
Alexander Graham Bell (with independent work by Elisha Gray).
155. Who developed a practical long-lasting electric light bulb?
Thomas Edison (earlier versions existed, notably by Joseph Swan).
156. Who discovered the link between electricity and magnetism?
Hans Christian Ørsted.
157. Who formulated the complete set of electromagnetic equations?
James Clerk Maxwell.
158. Who discovered electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
159. Who is regarded as the father of nuclear physics?
Ernest Rutherford.
160. Who proposed the modern atomic theory?
John Dalton.
161. Who discovered argon and helped identify other noble gases?
Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay.
162. Who invented the first electric battery?
Alessandro Volta.
163. Who first observed the photoelectric effect?
Heinrich Hertz; Albert Einstein later explained it.
164. Who developed the special theory of relativity?
Albert Einstein in 1905.
165. Who is associated with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics?
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.
166. Who was Paul Dirac?
British theoretical physicist who predicted antimatter and formulated the Dirac equation.
167. Who discovered the positron?
Carl Anderson in 1932.
168. Who confirmed the bending of starlight by the Sun predicted by general relativity?
Arthur Eddington during the 1919 solar eclipse.
169. Who discovered that the universe is expanding?
Edwin Hubble.
170. What is Hubble’s law?
The farther a galaxy is from us, the faster it is moving away.
171. Who first proposed the idea of an expanding universe that later became the Big Bang theory?
Georges Lemaître.
172. Who discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965.
173. Who calculated the first exact solution for a black hole in general relativity?
Karl Schwarzschild.
174. Who predicted that black holes emit radiation?
Stephen Hawking (Hawking radiation).
175. What is Hawking radiation?
Thermal radiation that quantum effects cause black holes to emit near their event horizons.
176. Who determined the amino-acid sequence of insulin?
Frederick Sanger.
177. How many Nobel Prizes did Frederick Sanger win?
Two, both in Chemistry (1958 and 1980).
178. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee while working at CERN.
179. In which year was the World Wide Web first proposed?
1989.
180. Who is often called the father of the computer?
Charles Babbage for designing the Analytical Engine.
181. Who is considered the world’s first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
182. Who invented the concept of the Turing machine?
Alan Turing.
183. What is the Turing Test?
A test proposed by Alan Turing to assess whether a machine can exhibit intelligent behaviour indistinguishable from that of a human.
184. Who co-invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley at Bell Labs.
185. In which year was the transistor invented?
1947.
186. Who discovered X-rays?
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895.
187. Who developed the quantum theory of radiation?
Max Planck.
188. What is Planck’s constant?
A fundamental constant (h) that relates the energy of a photon to its frequency.
189. Who formulated the uncertainty principle?
Werner Heisenberg.
190. What does the Heisenberg uncertainty principle state?
It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum of a particle at the same time.
191. Who developed the wave equation of quantum mechanics?
Erwin Schrödinger.
192. What is Schrödinger’s cat?
A thought experiment illustrating the concept of quantum superposition.
193. Who predicted the existence of antimatter?
Paul Dirac.
194. Who developed the general theory of relativity?
Albert Einstein in 1915.
195. What does general relativity describe gravity as?
The curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.
196. Who was Marie Curie?
Polish-French scientist who discovered polonium and radium and became the first woman to win a Nobel Prize.
197. How many Nobel Prizes did Marie Curie win?
Two – Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911.
198. What elements did Marie Curie discover?
Polonium and radium.
199. Who discovered radioactivity?
Henri Becquerel in 1896; Marie and Pierre Curie later conducted extensive research on it.
200. Who is regarded as the father of modern chemistry?
Antoine Lavoisier.
201. Who discovered oxygen?
Joseph Priestley and independently Carl Wilhelm Scheele; Antoine Lavoisier later named it and explained its role in combustion.
202. Who discovered hydrogen?
Henry Cavendish.
203. Who formulated the law of conservation of mass?
Antoine Lavoisier.
204. Who developed the first practical electric motor?
Michael Faraday.
205. Who invented the dynamo?
Michael Faraday.
206. Who discovered benzene?
Michael Faraday.
207. Who proposed the planetary model of the atom after the gold-foil experiment?
Ernest Rutherford.
208. What did Rutherford’s gold-foil experiment prove?
That atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.
209. Who discovered the proton?
Ernest Rutherford.
210. Who developed the Bohr model of the atom?
Niels Bohr.
211. What is the main idea of the Bohr model?
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed energy levels or orbits.
212. Who discovered the electron?
J.J. Thomson in 1897 using cathode ray tubes.
213. What model of the atom did J.J. Thomson propose?
The plum-pudding model.
214. Who invented the cloud chamber?
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson.
215. Who discovered the positron using a cloud chamber?
Carl Anderson.
216. Who formulated the four laws of thermodynamics in their modern form?
Many scientists contributed, including Rudolf Clausius, Lord Kelvin and Ludwig Boltzmann.
217. Who introduced the concept of entropy?
Rudolf Clausius.
218. Who developed statistical mechanics?
Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Willard Gibbs.
219. Who discovered the laws of electrolysis?
Michael Faraday.
220. Who invented the voltaic pile, the first electric battery?
Alessandro Volta.
221. Who discovered electromagnetic waves experimentally?
Heinrich Hertz.
222. Who predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves?
James Clerk Maxwell.
223. Who invented the radio?
Guglielmo Marconi (practical wireless telegraphy); earlier theoretical and experimental work by others including Tesla and Hertz.
224. Who is known for contributions to alternating current and the induction motor?
Nikola Tesla.
225. Who developed the first practical telephone?
Alexander Graham Bell.
226. Who invented the phonograph?
Thomas Edison.
227. Who invented the motion picture camera?
Thomas Edison and William Dickson (Kinetoscope).
228. Who discovered the circulation of blood?
William Harvey.
229. Who is known as the father of modern anatomy?
Andreas Vesalius.
230. Who developed the first vaccine for rabies?
Louis Pasteur.
231. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacillus?
Robert Koch.
232. Who formulated Koch’s postulates?
Robert Koch.
233. Who discovered the cholera bacterium?
Robert Koch.
234. Who developed the first antiseptic methods in surgery?
Joseph Lister.
235. Who discovered the structure of penicillin and helped mass-produce it?
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain (with Alexander Fleming).
236. Who discovered streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis?
Selman Waksman.
237. Who discovered the ABO blood groups and later the Rh factor?
Karl Landsteiner (ABO); Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener (Rh).
238. Who developed the first successful heart transplant?
Christiaan Barnard in 1967.
239. Who discovered the structure of vitamin C and synthesised it?
Albert Szent-Györgyi and later Tadeus Reichstein and others.
240. Who discovered insulin’s role and isolated it for treatment of diabetes?
Frederick Banting, Charles Best, John Macleod and James Collip.
241. Who developed the first oral contraceptive pill?
Gregory Pincus, Min Chueh Chang and John Rock, based on work by Carl Djerassi and others.
242. Who discovered the double helix of DNA with James Watson?
Francis Crick.
243. Who provided the critical X-ray diffraction data for the DNA structure?
Rosalind Franklin.
244. Who developed the method for sequencing DNA that is still widely used?
Frederick Sanger.
245. Who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Kary Mullis.
246. Who discovered restriction enzymes that made genetic engineering possible?
Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans.
247. Who developed the first genetically engineered insulin?
Scientists at Genentech, including Herbert Boyer and others, in the late 1970s.
248. Who discovered the first oncogene?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop.
249. Who developed the hybridoma technique for producing monoclonal antibodies?
Georges Köhler and César Milstein.
250. Who discovered the structure of haemoglobin and myoglobin using X-ray crystallography?
Max Perutz and John Kendrew.
251. Who formulated the theory of continental drift?
Alfred Wegener.
252. Who developed the theory of plate tectonics?
Many scientists including Harry Hess, Tuzo Wilson and others building on Wegener’s ideas.
253. Who discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and provided evidence for seafloor spreading?
Harry Hess and others.
254. Who proposed the Gaia hypothesis?
James Lovelock, with contributions from Lynn Margulis.
255. Who discovered the ozone hole over Antarctica?
British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin in 1985.
256. Who predicted the depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs?
Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland.
257. Who developed the first accurate model of the greenhouse effect?
Svante Arrhenius in 1896.
258. Who is known as the father of modern meteorology?
Vilhelm Bjerknes.
259. Who invented the barometer?
Evangelista Torricelli.
260. Who discovered the laws of planetary motion?
Johannes Kepler.
261. What is Kepler’s second law?
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
262. What is Kepler’s third law?
The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
263. Who improved the telescope and discovered sunspots, the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter?
Galileo Galilei.
264. Who proposed the heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the centre of the solar system?
Nicolaus Copernicus.
265. Who wrote Principia Mathematica and formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation?
Isaac Newton.
266. What is Newton’s second law of motion?
Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
267. What is Newton’s third law of motion?
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
268. Who discovered the composition of white light and invented the reflecting telescope?
Isaac Newton.
269. Who calculated the orbit of Halley’s Comet?
Edmond Halley.
270. Who discovered Uranus?
William Herschel in 1781.
271. Who discovered Neptune through mathematical prediction?
Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams; observed by Johann Galle.
272. Who discovered Pluto?
Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
273. Who proposed the existence of black holes theoretically?
John Michell and later Karl Schwarzschild; the term was popularised by John Wheeler.
274. Who developed the concept of the event horizon?
Karl Schwarzschild and later researchers.
275. Who predicted gravitational waves?
Albert Einstein in general relativity.
276. Who detected gravitational waves for the first time?
The LIGO Scientific Collaboration in 2015.
277. Who developed the inflationary model of the early universe?
Alan Guth and independently Andrei Linde and others.
278. Who discovered pulsars?
Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish in 1967.
279. Who proposed the existence of dark matter?
Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s; later confirmed by Vera Rubin’s observations of galaxy rotation curves.
280. Who provided strong observational evidence for dark matter through galaxy rotation curves?
Vera Rubin.
281. Who proposed the existence of dark energy?
The concept emerged from observations by Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess showing the accelerating expansion of the universe.
282. Who discovered that the expansion of the universe is accelerating?
Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess (Nobel Prize 2011).
283. Who developed the first successful liquid-fuel rocket?
Robert Goddard.
284. Who is known as the father of modern rocketry?
Robert Goddard (USA), Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (Russia) and Hermann Oberth (Germany) are all key figures.
285. Who launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1?
The Soviet Union under the leadership of Sergei Korolev in 1957.
286. Who was the first human in space?
Yuri Gagarin in 1961.
287. Who was the first human to walk on the Moon?
Neil Armstrong in 1969.
288. Who developed the Saturn V rocket that took humans to the Moon?
Wernher von Braun and his team.
289. Who is known as the father of the Indian space programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
290. Who was the first Indian in space?
Rakesh Sharma in 1984.
291. Who developed India’s first satellite, Aryabhata?
ISRO under the guidance of Vikram Sarabhai and later Satish Dhawan.
292. Who is known as the Missile Man of India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
293. Who developed the Agni and Prithvi missiles in India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and his team at DRDO.
294. Who was the first woman in space?
Valentina Tereshkova in 1963.
295. Who was the first American woman in space?
Sally Ride in 1983.
296. Who was the first Indian-origin woman in space?
Kalpana Chawla.
297. Who discovered the Van Allen radiation belts?
James Van Allen.
298. Who developed the first successful communication satellite?
Teams at NASA and Bell Labs (Telstar 1 in 1962).
299. Who proposed the geostationary satellite orbit for communication?
Arthur C. Clarke in 1945.
300. Who invented the World Wide Web while working at CERN?
Tim Berners-Lee.
301. Who discovered the first asteroid, Ceres?
Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801.
302. Who calculated the orbit of the first asteroid using the method of least squares?
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
303. Who discovered the planet Neptune through mathematical prediction?
Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams; first observed by Johann Galle.
304. Who discovered the rings of Saturn?
Christiaan Huygens (he also discovered Titan).
305. Who discovered the Great Red Spot on Jupiter?
Giovanni Cassini or Robert Hooke (both observed it in the 17th century).
306. Who developed the first reflecting telescope?
Isaac Newton.
307. Who invented the achromatic lens that improved telescopes and microscopes?
John Dollond and independently Chester Moore Hall.
308. Who discovered the infrared radiation?
William Herschel in 1800.
309. Who discovered ultraviolet radiation?
Johann Wilhelm Ritter in 1801.
310. Who formulated the inverse-square law of gravity?
Isaac Newton.
311. Who developed the calculus independently of Newton?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
312. Who is known as the father of modern mathematics?
Many regard René Descartes or Carl Friedrich Gauss; Euclid is the father of geometry.
313. Who invented Cartesian coordinates?
René Descartes.
314. Who proved the fundamental theorem of algebra?
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
315. Who developed non-Euclidean geometry?
Nikolai Lobachevsky, János Bolyai and independently Carl Friedrich Gauss.
316. Who created set theory?
Georg Cantor.
317. Who developed the theory of groups that became fundamental in modern physics?
Évariste Galois and later mathematicians.
318. Who formulated the concept of imaginary numbers in a systematic way?
Rafael Bombelli and later Carl Friedrich Gauss and others.
319. Who invented the logarithm?
John Napier.
320. Who developed the slide rule based on logarithms?
William Oughtred.
321. Who discovered the binomial theorem for any index?
Isaac Newton.
322. Who formulated the laws of probability in a systematic way?
Pierre-Simon Laplace and earlier Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat.
323. Who developed the normal distribution or Gaussian distribution?
Carl Friedrich Gauss and independently Abraham de Moivre.
324. Who invented the method of least squares?
Carl Friedrich Gauss and Adrien-Marie Legendre.
325. Who developed Fourier analysis?
Joseph Fourier.
326. Who formulated Maxwell’s equations in their modern vector form?
Oliver Heaviside and independently others, building on James Clerk Maxwell.
327. Who discovered the electron spin?
George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit.
328. Who proposed the concept of electron spin theoretically?
Ralph Kronig (idea not published) and later Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit.
329. Who developed quantum electrodynamics (QED)?
Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.
330. Who invented Feynman diagrams?
Richard Feynman.
331. Who predicted the existence of the pi-meson (pion)?
Hideki Yukawa.
332. Who discovered the pion experimentally?
Cecil Powell and his team in 1947.
333. Who discovered the muon neutrino?
Leon Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger.
334. Who proposed the eightfold way for classifying hadrons?
Murray Gell-Mann and independently Yuval Ne’eman.
335. Who discovered the Omega-minus particle that confirmed the eightfold way?
A team at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1964.
336. Who proposed the existence of charm quarks?
Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani (GIM mechanism).
337. Who discovered the J/psi particle that confirmed the charm quark?
Burton Richter and Samuel Ting independently in 1974.
338. Who proposed the bottom and top quarks?
Kobayashi and Maskawa (for CP violation) and others.
339. Who discovered the bottom quark?
Leon Lederman and his team at Fermilab in 1977.
340. Who discovered the top quark?
Teams at Fermilab (CDF and DØ collaborations) in 1995.
341. Who predicted the existence of the W and Z bosons?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg.
342. Who experimentally discovered the W and Z bosons?
Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer with the UA1 and UA2 teams at CERN in 1983.
343. Who developed the electroweak theory?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg.
344. Who received the Nobel Prize for the electroweak theory?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg in 1979.
345. Who proposed asymptotic freedom in quantum chromodynamics?
David Gross, Frank Wilczek and independently David Politzer.
346. Who developed quantum chromodynamics (QCD)?
Many physicists including Gross, Wilczek, Politzer and others.
347. Who discovered the gluon?
Experiments at DESY (PETRA collider) in 1979.
348. Who proposed the Higgs mechanism?
Peter Higgs, François Englert, Robert Brout and others independently.
349. Who received the Nobel Prize for the Higgs mechanism?
François Englert and Peter Higgs in 2013.
350. Who built the Large Hadron Collider?
CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research.
351. Who discovered the first evidence for neutrino oscillation?
The Super-Kamiokande collaboration in Japan and the SNO collaboration in Canada.
352. Who proposed that neutrinos have mass?
Bruno Pontecorvo and later confirmed by oscillation experiments.
353. Who received the Nobel Prize for neutrino oscillation?
Takaaki Kajita and Arthur McDonald in 2015.
354. Who developed the first successful nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method?
Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell.
355. Who developed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?
Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield.
356. Who invented the computed tomography (CT) scanner?
Godfrey Hounsfield and independently Allan Cormack.
357. Who developed the first successful artificial heart for temporary use?
Willem Kolff and later Robert Jarvik (Jarvik-7).
358. Who performed the first successful human heart transplant?
Christiaan Barnard in 1967.
359. Who discovered the structure of insulin using X-ray crystallography?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
360. Who determined the structure of penicillin and vitamin B12?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
361. Who received the Nobel Prize for X-ray crystallography of important biochemical substances?
Dorothy Hodgkin in 1964.
362. Who developed the first effective treatment for Parkinson’s disease using L-DOPA?
George Cotzias.
363. Who discovered the role of dopamine in the brain?
Arvid Carlsson.
364. Who developed the first antidepressant drugs?
Researchers including Roland Kuhn (imipramine) and others.
365. Who discovered the first effective vaccine for hepatitis B?
Baruch Blumberg and later Maurice Hilleman.
366. Who developed the first vaccine for measles?
John Enders and his team; later improved by Maurice Hilleman.
367. Who developed vaccines for mumps and rubella?
Maurice Hilleman.
368. Who is known for developing more than 40 vaccines?
Maurice Hilleman.
369. Who discovered the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (and independently Robert Gallo).
370. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of HIV?
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi in 2008.
371. Who developed the first effective antiretroviral drug for HIV (AZT)?
Researchers at Burroughs Wellcome (now GSK), building on earlier work.
372. Who discovered the prion, a new type of infectious agent?
Stanley Prusiner.
373. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of prions?
Stanley Prusiner in 1997.
374. Who developed the first successful method for in-vitro fertilisation (IVF)?
Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe.
375. Who received the Nobel Prize for the development of IVF?
Robert Edwards in 2010.
376. Who was the first baby born through IVF?
Louise Brown in 1978.
377. Who discovered the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath.
378. Who received the Nobel Prize for ribosome structure?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath in 2009.
379. Who developed CRISPR as a powerful gene-editing tool?
Jennifer Doudna, Emmanuelle Charpentier and later Feng Zhang and others.
380. Who first demonstrated CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing in human cells?
Feng Zhang and independently George Church’s group.
381. Who discovered the CRISPR system in bacteria?
Francisco Mojica and later researchers who recognised its function.
382. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for a genetic disease?
Researchers including French Anderson (early trials) and later successful treatments for conditions like SCID.
383. Who invented the first practical method for sequencing the human genome?
Many scientists; the Human Genome Project was led by Francis Collins and Craig Venter (private effort).
384. Who completed the first draft of the human genome?
The International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium and Celera Genomics in 2001.
385. Who developed next-generation sequencing technologies?
Many companies and scientists, including those behind Illumina, 454 and SOLiD systems.
386. Who discovered the first exoplanet around a sun-like star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz in 1995.
387. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of exoplanets?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz in 2019.
388. Who developed the transit method for finding exoplanets?
Many researchers; the Kepler space telescope team made major contributions.
389. Who led the Kepler space telescope mission that found thousands of exoplanets?
William Borucki.
390. Who proposed the existence of a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way?
Many astronomers; confirmed by observations led by Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel.
391. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the supermassive black hole at the galactic centre?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel in 2020 (shared with Roger Penrose).
392. Who developed the mathematical theory of black holes and singularities?
Roger Penrose.
393. Who proposed the Penrose process for extracting energy from black holes?
Roger Penrose.
394. Who developed the concept of Hawking radiation with Stephen Hawking?
Stephen Hawking (building on work by Jacob Bekenstein and others).
395. Who proposed the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula for black holes?
Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking.
396. Who developed the first successful theory of superconductivity at high temperatures?
J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller (discovery of cuprate superconductors).
397. Who received the Nobel Prize for high-temperature superconductivity?
J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller in 1987.
398. Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
399. Who invented the atomic force microscope?
Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber.
400. Who received the Nobel Prize for the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in 1986 (shared with Ernst Ruska).
401. Who invented the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska (with help from Max Knoll).
402. Who received the Nobel Prize for the invention of the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska in 1986.
403. Who developed the first practical optical microscope?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek improved it greatly; earlier versions by Zacharias Janssen and others.
404. Who is known as the father of microbiology?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
405. Who first observed bacteria and protozoa under a microscope?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
406. Who developed the cell theory?
Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden and later Rudolf Virchow.
407. Who stated that all cells come from pre-existing cells?
Rudolf Virchow.
408. Who discovered the cell nucleus?
Robert Brown.
409. Who coined the term “cell”?
Robert Hooke.
410. Who discovered chromosomes and their role in inheritance?
Walther Flemming (mitosis) and later Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton (chromosome theory).
411. Who proposed the chromosome theory of inheritance?
Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri.
412. Who discovered sex-linked inheritance using fruit flies?
Thomas Hunt Morgan.
413. Who received the Nobel Prize for work on the role of chromosomes in heredity?
Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1933.
414. Who discovered genetic recombination and created the first genetic map?
Alfred Sturtevant (in Thomas Hunt Morgan’s lab).
415. Who demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material?
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (and later Hershey and Chase).
416. Who performed the blender experiment confirming DNA as genetic material?
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase.
417. Who discovered the transforming principle in bacteria?
Frederick Griffith.
418. Who proposed the central dogma of molecular biology?
Francis Crick.
419. Who discovered messenger RNA (mRNA)?
Sydney Brenner, François Jacob and Matthew Meselson.
420. Who discovered the operon model of gene regulation?
François Jacob and Jacques Monod.
421. Who received the Nobel Prize for the operon model?
François Jacob, Jacques Monod and André Lwoff in 1965.
422. Who discovered reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin and independently David Baltimore.
423. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin, David Baltimore and Renato Dulbecco in 1975.
424. Who developed the first method to sequence proteins?
Frederick Sanger (for insulin).
425. Who invented the Sanger method of DNA sequencing?
Frederick Sanger.
426. Who developed the Maxam-Gilbert method of DNA sequencing?
Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert.
427. Who invented the Northern blotting technique?
James Alwine, David Kemp and George Stark.
428. Who invented Southern blotting?
Edwin Southern.
429. Who invented Western blotting?
W. Neal Burnette and independently Harry Towbin and others.
430. Who developed the first recombinant DNA technology?
Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen.
431. Who created the first recombinant DNA molecule?
Paul Berg.
432. Who received the Nobel Prize for recombinant DNA technology?
Paul Berg in 1980 (shared with Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger).
433. Who developed the first transgenic animal?
Researchers including Rudolf Jaenisch (early work) and later others.
434. Who created the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep?
Ian Wilmut and his team at the Roslin Institute in 1996.
435. Who developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)?
Shinya Yamanaka.
436. Who received the Nobel Prize for iPS cells?
Shinya Yamanaka and John Gurdon in 2012.
437. Who first successfully cloned a vertebrate from somatic cells?
John Gurdon (using frogs in the 1960s).
438. Who discovered embryonic stem cells in mice?
Martin Evans and Matthew Kaufman; independently Gail Martin.
439. Who received the Nobel Prize for embryonic stem cells and iPS cells?
John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka in 2012 (Martin Evans shared an earlier related prize).
440. Who developed the first successful gene knockout mouse?
Mario Capecchi, Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies.
441. Who received the Nobel Prize for gene targeting in mice?
Mario Capecchi, Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies in 2007.
442. Who discovered the first tumour-suppressor gene (Rb)?
Researchers including Alfred Knudson (two-hit hypothesis) and later the gene was cloned by several groups.
443. Who proposed the two-hit hypothesis for tumour-suppressor genes?
Alfred Knudson.
444. Who discovered the p53 tumour-suppressor gene?
Several groups including those led by David Lane, Arnold Levine and others.
445. Who developed the first cancer immunotherapy using checkpoint inhibitors?
James Allison and Tasuku Honjo (CTLA-4 and PD-1).
446. Who received the Nobel Prize for cancer immunotherapy?
James Allison and Tasuku Honjo in 2018.
447. Who discovered the first human cancer virus (Epstein-Barr virus)?
Michael Epstein and Yvonne Barr.
448. Who discovered Helicobacter pylori as the cause of peptic ulcers?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren.
449. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of Helicobacter pylori?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren in 2005.
450. Who developed the first successful vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV)?
Researchers including Ian Frazer and Jian Zhou; commercialised by companies.
451. Who discovered the link between HPV and cervical cancer?
Harald zur Hausen.
452. Who received the Nobel Prize for discovering the role of HPV in cancer?
Harald zur Hausen in 2008.
453. Who developed the first effective treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children?
Researchers including Sidney Farber and later many oncologists.
454. Who is known as the father of modern chemotherapy?
Sidney Farber.
455. Who discovered the first effective antibiotic after penicillin (streptomycin)?
Selman Waksman and his student Albert Schatz.
456. Who received the Nobel Prize for streptomycin?
Selman Waksman in 1952.
457. Who discovered the first broad-spectrum antibiotic, chloramphenicol?
Researchers at Parke-Davis.
458. Who developed the first successful antiviral drug, acyclovir?
Gertrude Elion and George Hitchings.
459. Who received the Nobel Prize for the development of important drugs including acyclovir?
Gertrude Elion, George Hitchings and James Black in 1988.
460. Who developed the first beta-blocker drugs?
James Black.
461. Who developed the first H2-receptor antagonist for ulcers (cimetidine)?
James Black and his team.
462. Who discovered the structure of vitamin B12?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
463. Who isolated and crystallised insulin?
John Macleod’s team including Frederick Banting and Charles Best; later crystallised by others.
464. Who developed the first synthetic antimalarial drug, chloroquine?
Hans Andersag at Bayer.
465. Who discovered artemisinin, a powerful antimalarial?
Tu Youyou.
466. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of artemisinin?
Tu Youyou in 2015.
467. Who developed the first successful vaccine for yellow fever?
Max Theiler.
468. Who received the Nobel Prize for the yellow fever vaccine?
Max Theiler in 1951.
469. Who discovered the first effective treatment for syphilis (Salvarsan)?
Paul Ehrlich.
470. Who is known as the father of chemotherapy?
Paul Ehrlich.
471. Who developed the side-chain theory of immunity?
Paul Ehrlich.
472. Who discovered the first antibody structure?
Gerald Edelman and Rodney Porter.
473. Who received the Nobel Prize for the structure of antibodies?
Gerald Edelman and Rodney Porter in 1972.
474. Who developed the hybridoma technology for monoclonal antibodies?
Georges Köhler and César Milstein.
475. Who received the Nobel Prize for monoclonal antibodies?
Georges Köhler, César Milstein and Niels Jerne in 1984.
476. Who proposed the clonal selection theory of antibody production?
Frank Macfarlane Burnet.
477. Who discovered the MHC (major histocompatibility complex) system?
Researchers including George Snell, Jean Dausset and Baruj Benacerraf.
478. Who received the Nobel Prize for the MHC system?
George Snell, Jean Dausset and Baruj Benacerraf in 1980.
479. Who developed the first successful organ transplant (kidney)?
Joseph Murray (identical twins in 1954).
480. Who received the Nobel Prize for organ transplantation?
Joseph Murray and E. Donnall Thomas in 1990.
481. Who developed bone-marrow transplantation for leukaemia?
E. Donnall Thomas.
482. Who discovered cyclosporine, the key immunosuppressive drug for transplants?
Researchers at Sandoz (now Novartis), including Jean-François Borel.
483. Who developed the first successful artificial kidney (dialysis machine)?
Willem Kolff.
484. Who is known as the father of artificial organs?
Willem Kolff.
485. Who invented the first practical cardiac pacemaker?
Rune Elmqvist and Åke Senning (implantable); earlier external versions by others including Paul Zoll.
486. Who developed the first implantable cardioverter-defibrillator?
Michel Mirowski and his team.
487. Who performed the first successful coronary artery bypass surgery?
René Favaloro in 1967.
488. Who developed the first balloon angioplasty technique?
Andreas Grüntzig.
489. Who invented the first coronary stent?
Several researchers; early work by Jacques Puel and Ulrich Sigwart.
490. Who discovered the role of cholesterol in heart disease?
Many scientists including Nikolai Anitschkow (early animal studies) and later large epidemiological studies.
491. Who developed the first statin drug for lowering cholesterol?
Akira Endo (discovered compactin); later lovastatin by Merck researchers.
492. Who discovered the LDL receptor and its role in cholesterol metabolism?
Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein.
493. Who received the Nobel Prize for cholesterol metabolism research?
Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein in 1985.
494. Who developed the first successful vaccine for hepatitis A?
Maurice Hilleman and others.
495. Who developed the first recombinant hepatitis B vaccine?
Researchers at Merck and Biogen, building on work by Baruch Blumberg and others.
496. Who discovered the hepatitis C virus?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice.
497. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of hepatitis C virus?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice in 2020.
498. Who developed the first effective antiviral drugs for hepatitis C?
Researchers including those who developed sofosbuvir and other direct-acting antivirals.
499. Who discovered the first human retrovirus (HTLV-1)?
Robert Gallo and independently Japanese researchers.
500. Who developed the first successful vaccine for chickenpox (varicella)?
Michaki Takahashi.
501. Who discovered the first vitamin (thiamine or vitamin B1)?
Christiaan Eijkman and later Casimir Funk (who coined the term “vitamine”).
502. Who isolated and named vitamin C?
Albert Szent-Györgyi.
503. Who discovered the role of vitamin D in preventing rickets?
Edward Mellanby and later researchers including Elmer McCollum.
504. Who discovered vitamin A?
Elmer McCollum and independently others.
505. Who discovered vitamin K and its role in blood clotting?
Henrik Dam and Edward Doisy.
506. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of vitamin K?
Henrik Dam and Edward Doisy in 1943.
507. Who discovered the first hormone, secretin?
William Bayliss and Ernest Starling.
508. Who coined the term “hormone”?
Ernest Starling.
509. Who isolated and crystallised the first hormone, adrenaline (epinephrine)?
Jokichi Takamine and independently Thomas Aldrich.
510. Who discovered insulin’s chemical structure?
Frederick Sanger.
511. Who developed the first radioimmunoassay for measuring hormones?
Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson.
512. Who received the Nobel Prize for the radioimmunoassay?
Rosalyn Yalow in 1977.
513. Who discovered the structure of oxytocin and vasopressin?
Vincent du Vigneaud.
514. Who received the Nobel Prize for the synthesis of peptide hormones?
Vincent du Vigneaud in 1955.
515. Who discovered the hypothalamic releasing hormones?
Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally.
516. Who received the Nobel Prize for hypothalamic hormones?
Roger Guillemin, Andrew Schally and Rosalyn Yalow in 1977.
517. Who discovered the first prostaglandin?
Ulf von Euler.
518. Who determined the structures of prostaglandins?
Sune Bergström and Bengt Samuelsson.
519. Who received the Nobel Prize for prostaglandins?
Sune Bergström, Bengt Samuelsson and John Vane in 1982.
520. Who discovered that aspirin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis?
John Vane.
521. Who discovered the first cytokine, interferon?
Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann.
522. Who discovered interleukin-2 and its role in immune response?
Researchers including Robert Gallo and later many immunologists.
523. Who developed the first successful monoclonal antibody drug?
Researchers building on Köhler and Milstein’s hybridoma technology.
524. Who discovered the T-cell receptor?
Researchers including Tak Mak and Mark Davis.
525. Who discovered the role of dendritic cells in the immune system?
Ralph Steinman.
526. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of dendritic cells?
Ralph Steinman in 2011 (shared with Bruce Beutler and Jules Hoffmann).
527. Who discovered Toll-like receptors in innate immunity?
Jules Hoffmann and Bruce Beutler.
528. Who received the Nobel Prize for innate immunity discoveries?
Bruce Beutler, Jules Hoffmann and Ralph Steinman in 2011.
529. Who discovered the first chemokine?
Researchers in the 1980s; the field grew rapidly thereafter.
530. Who developed the first successful CAR-T cell therapy?
Researchers including Carl June and others.
531. Who discovered the CRISPR-Cas system’s adaptive immune function in bacteria?
Francisco Mojica and later Philippe Horvath and Rodolphe Barrangou.
532. Who first used CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing in eukaryotic cells?
Feng Zhang and independently George Church’s laboratory.
533. Who developed base editing as an advance beyond CRISPR-Cas9?
David Liu.
534. Who developed prime editing?
David Liu and Andrew Anzalone.
535. Who discovered the first microRNA?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun.
536. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of microRNA?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun in 2024.
537. Who discovered RNA interference (RNAi)?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello.
538. Who received the Nobel Prize for RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello in 2006.
539. Who discovered the first tumour virus in animals?
Peyton Rous (Rous sarcoma virus).
540. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of tumour-inducing viruses?
Peyton Rous in 1966.
541. Who discovered the first human oncogene (src)?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop.
542. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of cellular oncogenes?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop in 1989.
543. Who discovered the first tumour-suppressor gene in humans (Rb)?
Researchers including the teams that cloned the retinoblastoma gene.
544. Who developed the concept of multi-step carcinogenesis?
Many researchers building on work by Peyton Rous and others.
545. Who discovered the role of telomeres and telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak.
546. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of telomeres and telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak in 2009.
547. Who discovered that telomerase is active in most cancer cells?
Many researchers following the work of Blackburn and Greider.
548. Who developed the first successful targeted cancer therapy (imatinib or Gleevec)?
Brian Druker, Nicholas Lydon and Charles Sawyers.
549. Who discovered the BCR-ABL fusion gene in chronic myeloid leukaemia?
Researchers including Peter Nowell and David Hungerford (Philadelphia chromosome) and later molecular biologists.
550. Who developed the first successful immunotherapy for melanoma using checkpoint blockade?
James Allison (CTLA-4) and later others for PD-1.
551. Who discovered PD-1?
Tasuku Honjo.
552. Who developed the first successful oncolytic virus therapy?
Researchers including those who developed T-VEC and earlier experimental viruses.
553. Who discovered the first bacterial toxin used in medicine (botulinum toxin)?
Researchers in the 19th and 20th centuries; medical use developed later by Alan Scott and others.
554. Who developed the first successful vaccine against bacterial pneumonia (pneumococcus)?
Researchers including Oswald Avery and later many others.
555. Who discovered the first growth factor (nerve growth factor)?
Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen.
556. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of growth factors?
Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen in 1986.
557. Who discovered epidermal growth factor (EGF)?
Stanley Cohen.
558. Who developed the first successful monoclonal antibody against a growth-factor receptor (Herceptin)?
Researchers at Genentech including Axel Ullrich and others.
559. Who discovered the HER2 gene amplification in breast cancer?
Dennis Slamon and others.
560. Who developed the first successful aromatase inhibitors for breast cancer?
Researchers including those who developed anastrozole and letrozole.
561. Who discovered the BRCA1 gene?
Mary-Claire King (linkage) and later the gene was cloned by teams including Mark Skolnick’s group.
562. Who discovered the BRCA2 gene?
Researchers including Michael Stratton and others.
563. Who developed the first successful PARP inhibitors for BRCA-mutated cancers?
Researchers building on work by many laboratories.
564. Who discovered the first successful vaccine for malaria (RTS,S)?
Researchers at GlaxoSmithKline and the PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative.
565. Who discovered the life cycle of the malaria parasite?
Ronald Ross and independently Giovanni Battista Grassi.
566. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of malaria transmission by mosquitoes?
Ronald Ross in 1902.
567. Who discovered the first effective treatment for malaria (quinine)?
Indigenous South American peoples; introduced to Europe by Jesuit missionaries.
568. Who synthesised the first artificial antimalarial (atabrine/mepacrine)?
Researchers at Bayer (IG Farben).
569. Who discovered the insecticide DDT?
Paul Hermann Müller.
570. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of DDT’s insecticidal properties?
Paul Hermann Müller in 1948.
571. Who discovered the first successful treatment for leprosy (dapsone and later multi-drug therapy)?
Researchers including Guy Faget and later WHO programmes.
572. Who discovered Mycobacterium leprae, the cause of leprosy?
Gerhard Armauer Hansen.
573. Who developed the first successful vaccine for tuberculosis (BCG)?
Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin.
574. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacterium?
Robert Koch.
575. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium?
Robert Koch in 1905.
576. Who developed the first successful antibiotic for tuberculosis after streptomycin?
Researchers who developed isoniazid, rifampicin and others.
577. Who discovered the first successful treatment for syphilis after Salvarsan (penicillin)?
John Mahoney and others who demonstrated penicillin’s effectiveness.
578. Who discovered the cause of syphilis (Treponema pallidum)?
Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann.
579. Who developed the first successful Wassermann test for syphilis?
August von Wassermann.
580. Who discovered the first successful vaccine for typhoid fever?
Almroth Wright and others.
581. Who discovered the typhoid bacterium?
Karl Eberth and later Georg Gaffky.
582. Who developed the first successful vaccine for cholera?
Waldemar Haffkine and later others.
583. Who discovered the cholera bacterium?
Robert Koch.
584. Who developed the first successful oral rehydration therapy for cholera?
Researchers in India and Bangladesh including Dilip Mahalanabis and others.
585. Who discovered the first successful vaccine for plague?
Waldemar Haffkine.
586. Who discovered the plague bacterium?
Alexandre Yersin and independently Shibasaburo Kitasato.
587. Who developed the first successful vaccine for diphtheria?
Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato (antitoxin); later toxoid vaccines by others.
588. Who received the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine?
Emil von Behring in 1901 for diphtheria serum therapy.
589. Who discovered the diphtheria toxin?
Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin.
590. Who developed the first successful vaccine for tetanus?
Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato (antitoxin); later toxoid by others.
591. Who discovered the tetanus bacterium?
Arthur Nicolaier and later isolated by Shibasaburo Kitasato.
592. Who developed the first successful vaccine for whooping cough (pertussis)?
Researchers including Pearl Kendrick and Grace Eldering.
593. Who discovered the pertussis bacterium?
Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou.
594. Who developed the first successful combined DTP vaccine?
Researchers in the 1940s building on earlier individual vaccines.
595. Who developed the first successful vaccine for Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)?
Researchers including John Robbins and Rachel Schneerson.
596. Who developed the first successful conjugate vaccines?
Researchers including those who developed Hib and later meningococcal and pneumococcal conjugates.
597. Who discovered the first successful treatment for river blindness (onchocerciasis) using ivermectin?
William Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura.
598. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of ivermectin and artemisinin?
William Campbell, Satoshi Ōmura and Tu Youyou in 2015.
599. Who discovered the bacterium that causes river blindness?
Researchers including those who identified Onchocerca volvulus and its Wolbachia symbiont.
600. Who developed the first successful mass drug administration programmes for neglected tropical diseases?
Many public-health researchers and organisations including the WHO and Merck’s ivermectin donation programme.
Government Jobs in
Canada for Foreigners 2026
601. Who discovered the first antibiotic produced by a bacterium (tyrothricin and gramicidin)?
René Dubos.
602. Who discovered the first broad-spectrum antibiotic from a soil fungus (chloramphenicol)?
Researchers at Parke-Davis in 1947.
603. Who discovered erythromycin?
Abelardo Aguilar and later isolated by researchers at Eli Lilly.
604. Who discovered tetracycline antibiotics?
Researchers including Benjamin Duggar (aureomycin) and later others.
605. Who discovered the first cephalosporin antibiotic?
Giuseppe Brotzu.
606. Who developed the first semi-synthetic penicillins?
Researchers at Beecham (now GSK), including those who developed methicillin and ampicillin.
607. Who discovered the beta-lactamase enzymes that cause penicillin resistance?
Researchers in the 1940s following the introduction of penicillin.
608. Who developed the first beta-lactamase inhibitors (clavulanic acid)?
Researchers at Beecham.
609. Who discovered vancomycin?
Edmund Kornfeld at Eli Lilly.
610. Who discovered rifampicin?
Researchers at Lepetit Pharmaceuticals in Italy.
611. Who developed the first successful treatment regimen for leprosy using multiple drugs?
Researchers working with the World Health Organization.
612. Who discovered the first effective antiviral drug for herpes (idoxuridine)?
William Prusoff and others.
613. Who developed the first successful antiviral for influenza (amantadine)?
Researchers at DuPont.
614. Who discovered the first nucleoside analogue antiviral (acyclovir)?
Gertrude Elion and her team at Burroughs Wellcome.
615. Who developed the first successful antiretroviral drug for HIV (zidovudine or AZT)?
Researchers at Burroughs Wellcome, building on earlier nucleoside work.
616. Who discovered the first protease inhibitors for HIV?
Researchers at several pharmaceutical companies in the 1990s.
617. Who developed the first successful combination antiretroviral therapy (HAART)?
Many clinicians and researchers in the mid-1990s.
618. Who discovered the CCR5 co-receptor used by HIV to enter cells?
Researchers including those who identified the role of chemokine receptors.
619. Who developed the first CCR5 antagonist drug for HIV?
Researchers at Pfizer and other companies.
620. Who discovered the first successful vaccine for human papillomavirus (HPV)?
Ian Frazer and Jian Zhou (virus-like particle technology); commercialised by Merck and GSK.
621. Who discovered that HPV causes cervical cancer?
Harald zur Hausen.
622. Who developed the first successful vaccine for rotavirus?
Researchers including those at the Wistar Institute and later pharmaceutical companies.
623. Who discovered the rotavirus?
Ruth Bishop and colleagues in Australia.
624. Who developed the first successful vaccine for Japanese encephalitis?
Researchers in Japan and later international teams.
625. Who discovered the Japanese encephalitis virus?
Researchers in Japan in the 1930s.
626. Who developed the first successful vaccine for tick-borne encephalitis?
Researchers in Europe and Russia.
627. Who discovered the first successful treatment for African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) using modern drugs?
Researchers who developed suramin, melarsoprol and later eflornithine and fexinidazole.
628. Who discovered the parasite that causes sleeping sickness?
David Bruce and others.
629. Who developed the first successful treatment for Chagas disease?
Researchers who developed nifurtimox and benznidazole.
630. Who discovered the parasite that causes Chagas disease?
Carlos Chagas.
631. Who discovered the first successful treatment for schistosomiasis (praziquantel)?
Researchers at Bayer and Merck.
632. Who discovered the life cycle of schistosomes?
Robert Leiper and others.
633. Who developed the first successful mass treatment programmes for schistosomiasis?
Public-health researchers working with the World Health Organization.
634. Who discovered the first successful treatment for lymphatic filariasis using ivermectin and albendazole?
Researchers building on the work of William Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura.
635. Who discovered the parasite that causes lymphatic filariasis?
Patrick Manson and others.
636. Who developed the first successful vaccine for dengue fever?
Researchers at Sanofi Pasteur and later other companies (Dengvaxia and others).
637. Who discovered the dengue virus?
Researchers in the early 20th century; four serotypes later identified.
638. Who developed the first successful vaccine for Ebola?
Researchers at several institutions including the Public Health Agency of Canada and Merck (rVSV-ZEBOV).
639. Who discovered the Ebola virus?
Researchers including Peter Piot and others during the 1976 outbreaks.
640. Who developed the first successful monoclonal antibody treatment for Ebola?
Researchers who developed ZMapp and later Inmazeb and Ebanga.
641. Who discovered the first successful treatment for COVID-19 using monoclonal antibodies?
Researchers at Regeneron, Eli Lilly and other companies.
642. Who developed the first successful mRNA vaccines for COVID-19?
Researchers at BioNTech/Pfizer (Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci and others) and Moderna.
643. Who pioneered the development of mRNA vaccine technology?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman.
644. Who received the Nobel Prize for mRNA vaccine technology?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman in 2023.
645. Who developed the first successful viral-vector vaccine for COVID-19?
Researchers at the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca and later Johnson & Johnson and Gamaleya.
646. Who discovered the SARS-CoV-2 virus?
Chinese researchers who sequenced it in January 2020; later named by ICTV.
647. Who developed the first successful PCR test for COVID-19?
Researchers at the Charité hospital in Berlin and later many others.
648. Who pioneered the use of CRISPR for diagnostic tests?
Researchers including those who developed SHERLOCK and DETECTR systems.
649. Who developed the first successful oral antiviral for COVID-19 (molnupiravir and Paxlovid)?
Researchers at Merck (molnupiravir) and Pfizer (Paxlovid).
650. Who discovered the first successful treatment for cystic fibrosis using CFTR modulators?
Researchers at Vertex Pharmaceuticals.
651. Who discovered the CFTR gene responsible for cystic fibrosis?
Francis Collins, Lap-Chee Tsui and John Riordan.
652. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers at AveXis/Novartis (onasemnogene abeparvovec) and later others.
653. Who discovered the genetic cause of spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers who identified SMN1 gene mutations.
654. Who developed the first successful antisense oligonucleotide therapy (nusinersen) for SMA?
Researchers at Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Biogen.
655. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for inherited retinal disease?
Researchers at Spark Therapeutics (voretigene neparvovec or Luxturna).
656. Who discovered the RPE65 gene linked to certain forms of blindness?
Researchers in the 1990s.
657. Who developed the first successful CAR-T therapy approved for cancer?
Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania and Novartis (tisagenlecleucel or Kymriah).
658. Who pioneered the clinical development of CAR-T cells?
Carl June and his team.
659. Who developed the first successful checkpoint inhibitor approved for cancer (ipilimumab)?
Researchers at Bristol-Myers Squibb building on James Allison’s work.
660. Who discovered the CTLA-4 immune checkpoint?
Researchers including James Allison and others.
661. Who developed the first successful PD-1 inhibitor (nivolumab and pembrolizumab)?
Researchers at Bristol-Myers Squibb, Merck and academic laboratories.
662. Who discovered the PD-1 pathway?
Tasuku Honjo and later researchers who developed the therapeutic antibodies.
663. Who developed the first successful bispecific antibody for cancer?
Researchers who developed blinatumomab and later others.
664. Who pioneered the development of antibody-drug conjugates?
Researchers including those who developed gemtuzumab ozogamicin and later trastuzumab emtansine.
665. Who developed the first successful ADC approved for breast cancer (T-DM1)?
Researchers at Genentech and ImmunoGen.
666. Who discovered the first successful targeted therapy for lung cancer with EGFR mutations?
Researchers who developed gefitinib and erlotinib.
667. Who discovered EGFR mutations as drivers of lung cancer?
Researchers including those at Massachusetts General Hospital and other centres in 2004.
668. Who developed the first successful ALK inhibitor for lung cancer?
Researchers at Pfizer (crizotinib).
669. Who discovered the ALK fusion gene in lung cancer?
Researchers in Japan and elsewhere.
670. Who developed the first successful BRAF inhibitor for melanoma?
Researchers at Plexxikon and Roche (vemurafenib).
671. Who discovered the BRAF V600E mutation in melanoma?
Researchers including those who performed large-scale cancer genome sequencing.
672. Who developed the first successful MEK inhibitors for melanoma?
Researchers at several companies including GlaxoSmithKline and Novartis.
673. Who developed the first successful PARP inhibitor for ovarian cancer?
Researchers at AstraZeneca (olaparib) and later others.
674. Who discovered the synthetic lethality of PARP inhibition in BRCA-mutated cells?
Researchers including Alan Ashworth, Thomas Helleday and others.
675. Who developed the first successful CDK4/6 inhibitors for breast cancer?
Researchers at Pfizer (palbociclib) and later other companies.
676. Who discovered the role of cyclin-dependent kinases in cell-cycle control?
Leland Hartwell, Tim Hunt and Paul Nurse.
677. Who received the Nobel Prize for discoveries on cell-cycle regulation?
Leland Hartwell, Tim Hunt and Paul Nurse in 2001.
678. Who discovered cyclin?
Tim Hunt.
679. Who discovered the CDC genes that control the cell cycle?
Leland Hartwell and Paul Nurse.
680. Who developed the first successful proteasome inhibitor for multiple myeloma?
Researchers at Millennium Pharmaceuticals (bortezomib).
681. Who discovered the ubiquitin-proteasome system?
Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose.
682. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation?
Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose in 2004.
683. Who developed the first successful histone deacetylase inhibitor for cancer?
Researchers who developed vorinostat and later others.
684. Who discovered the role of histone modifications in gene regulation?
Many researchers including Vincent Allfrey and later David Allis and others.
685. Who developed the first successful DNA methyltransferase inhibitor for cancer?
Researchers who developed azacitidine and decitabine.
686. Who discovered the role of DNA methylation in gene silencing?
Researchers including those who studied CpG islands and epigenetic regulation.
687. Who pioneered the field of epigenetics in development and disease?
Researchers including Conrad Waddington (who coined the term) and later many others.
688. Who discovered the first imprinted genes?
Researchers in the 1980s and 1990s studying parental-origin effects.
689. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for a monogenic disease approved in Europe (Glybera)?
Researchers at uniQure.
690. Who developed the first successful CRISPR-based therapy approved for medical use?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex (exagamglogene autotemcel for sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia).
691. Who discovered the genetic cause of sickle cell disease?
Linus Pauling (molecular basis) and earlier clinical observers; the mutation was later sequenced.
692. Who first described sickle cell disease at the molecular level?
Linus Pauling in 1949.
693. Who developed the first successful treatment for sickle cell disease using hydroxyurea?
Researchers who demonstrated its clinical benefit in the 1980s and 1990s.
694. Who discovered the first successful bone-marrow transplant cure for sickle cell disease?
Researchers who performed the first successful transplants in the 1980s.
695. Who developed the first successful gene-editing approach for sickle cell disease?
Researchers using CRISPR-Cas9 and other editing tools.
696. Who discovered the genetic cause of Huntington’s disease?
The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group in 1993.
697. Who mapped the Huntington’s disease gene to chromosome 4?
James Gusella and others in 1983.
698. Who developed the first successful antisense oligonucleotide therapy for Huntington’s disease (experimental)?
Researchers at Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Roche.
699. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystic fibrosis?
Francis Collins, Lap-Chee Tsui and John Riordan in 1989.
700. Who developed the first successful CFTR modulator therapy for cystic fibrosis?
Researchers at Vertex Pharmaceuticals (ivacaftor and later combination therapies).
701. Who discovered the first successful treatment for multiple sclerosis using interferon beta?
Researchers who developed the first interferon-beta therapies in the 1990s.
702. Who discovered the role of T cells in multiple sclerosis?
Many immunologists building on earlier work on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.
703. Who developed the first monoclonal antibody therapy for multiple sclerosis (natalizumab)?
Researchers at Biogen and Elan.
704. Who discovered the first successful oral therapy for multiple sclerosis (fingolimod)?
Researchers at Novartis building on work from Japanese laboratories.
705. Who discovered the genetic risk factors for multiple sclerosis?
Large international consortia using genome-wide association studies.
706. Who developed the first successful treatment for neuromyelitis optica using eculizumab and later other drugs?
Researchers who targeted the complement system and IL-6 pathways.
707. Who discovered the aquaporin-4 antibody as the cause of neuromyelitis optica?
Vanda Lennon and colleagues at the Mayo Clinic.
708. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Gaucher disease?
Researchers at Genzyme (alglucerase and later imiglucerase).
709. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in Gaucher disease?
Roscoe Brady and others.
710. Who developed the first successful substrate-reduction therapy for Gaucher disease?
Researchers who developed miglustat and later eliglustat.
711. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Fabry disease?
Researchers at Genzyme and Shire.
712. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in Fabry disease?
Researchers in the 1960s.
713. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Pompe disease?
Researchers at Genzyme (alglucosidase alfa).
714. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in Pompe disease?
Henri-Géry Hers.
715. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for a lysosomal storage disease?
Researchers working on several candidates including for metachromatic leukodystrophy.
716. Who discovered the first successful treatment for acute intermittent porphyria using hemin?
Researchers who developed intravenous hemin therapy.
717. Who discovered the enzyme defects in the porphyrias?
Multiple researchers over several decades.
718. Who developed the first successful RNA interference therapy approved for a genetic disease (patisiran)?
Researchers at Alnylam Pharmaceuticals.
719. Who developed the first successful antisense oligonucleotide therapy approved for a genetic disease (nusinersen)?
Researchers at Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Biogen.
720. Who developed the first successful CRISPR-based therapy for a genetic disease approved by regulators?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex Pharmaceuticals (Casgevy).
721. Who discovered the genetic cause of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Louis Kunkel and others who identified the dystrophin gene.
722. Who developed the first successful exon-skipping therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Researchers at Sarepta Therapeutics and other companies.
723. Who developed the first successful micro-dystrophin gene therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Researchers at Sarepta, Pfizer and other groups.
724. Who discovered the genetic cause of spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SMN1 gene.
725. Who developed the first successful small-molecule splicing modifier for spinal muscular atrophy (risdiplam)?
Researchers at PTC Therapeutics, Roche and the SMA Foundation.
726. Who discovered the genetic cause of Huntington’s disease?
The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group.
727. Who developed the first successful huntingtin-lowering therapies now in clinical trials?
Researchers at Ionis, Roche, Wave Life Sciences and other companies.
728. Who discovered the genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in some families (SOD1)?
Researchers including those who identified SOD1 mutations in 1993.
729. Who developed the first successful antisense therapy for SOD1-ALS?
Researchers at Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Biogen (tofersen).
730. Who discovered the C9orf72 repeat expansion as a major cause of ALS and FTD?
Researchers in 2011.
731. Who developed the first successful therapies targeting C9orf72 now in clinical trials?
Researchers at several biotechnology companies.
732. Who discovered the genetic cause of familial Alzheimer’s disease (APP, PSEN1, PSEN2)?
Researchers including those who identified amyloid precursor protein and presenilin mutations.
733. Who developed the first successful anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies for Alzheimer’s disease?
Researchers at Biogen (aducanumab), Eisai/Biogen (lecanemab) and Eli Lilly (donanemab).
734. Who discovered the amyloid cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease?
John Hardy and others.
735. Who discovered the tau protein as a major component of neurofibrillary tangles?
Researchers in the 1980s.
736. Who developed the first successful anti-tau therapies now in clinical trials?
Researchers at several pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.
737. Who discovered the genetic risk factor APOE4 for Alzheimer’s disease?
Researchers including Allen Roses.
738. Who developed the first successful BACE inhibitors for Alzheimer’s disease (though later discontinued)?
Researchers at several companies including Merck and Eli Lilly.
739. Who discovered the first successful treatment for narcolepsy using sodium oxybate and later orexin agonists?
Researchers who developed these therapies.
740. Who discovered the orexin (hypocretin) system as the cause of narcolepsy?
Researchers including those who identified orexin deficiency in patients.
741. Who developed the first successful treatment for restless legs syndrome using dopamine agonists?
Researchers who established the clinical use of these drugs.
742. Who discovered the genetic risk factors for restless legs syndrome?
Large genome-wide association studies.
743. Who developed the first successful treatment for insomnia using dual orexin receptor antagonists?
Researchers at Merck (suvorexant) and later other companies.
744. Who discovered the role of orexin in sleep-wake regulation?
Researchers who identified the orexin system in the late 1990s.
745. Who developed the first successful treatment for excessive daytime sleepiness using modafinil?
Researchers who developed and clinical tested modafinil.
746. Who discovered the first successful deep-brain stimulation therapy for Parkinson’s disease?
Alim-Louis Benabid and others.
747. Who developed the first successful focused ultrasound therapy for essential tremor and Parkinson’s disease?
Researchers who refined MRI-guided focused ultrasound.
748. Who discovered the role of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson’s disease surgery?
Researchers building on earlier lesioning work.
749. Who developed the first successful continuous infusion therapies for advanced Parkinson’s disease (Duodopa and others)?
Researchers who developed levodopa-carbidopa intestinal gel and apomorphine infusion.
750. Who discovered the first successful gene therapy approaches for Parkinson’s disease now in trials?
Researchers at several academic and industry groups.
751. Who developed the first successful treatment for migraine using triptans?
Researchers at Glaxo (sumatriptan) building on earlier serotonin research.
752. Who discovered the role of serotonin (5-HT1B/1D) receptors in migraine?
Researchers who characterised these receptors and their agonists.
753. Who developed the first successful CGRP monoclonal antibodies for migraine prevention?
Researchers at Amgen, Novartis, Teva, Eli Lilly and other companies.
754. Who discovered the role of CGRP in migraine?
Researchers including Lars Edvinsson and others.
755. Who developed the first successful oral CGRP receptor antagonists (gepants) for migraine?
Researchers at several companies including Biohaven and AbbVie.
756. Who developed the first successful treatment for cluster headache using oxygen and later other therapies?
Researchers who established high-flow oxygen and later CGRP-targeted treatments.
757. Who discovered the first successful treatment for idiopathic intracranial hypertension using acetazolamide and later other approaches?
Researchers who established the medical and surgical management.
758. Who developed the first successful treatment for myasthenia gravis using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors?
Mary Walker (physostigmine) and later researchers who developed pyridostigmine.
759. Who discovered the autoimmune nature of myasthenia gravis?
Researchers who identified acetylcholine receptor antibodies.
760. Who developed the first successful complement inhibitor for myasthenia gravis (eculizumab)?
Researchers at Alexion Pharmaceuticals.
761. Who developed the first successful FcRn inhibitor for myasthenia gravis?
Researchers at several companies including argenx (efgartigimod).
762. Who discovered the first successful treatment for Guillain-Barré syndrome using intravenous immunoglobulin and plasma exchange?
Researchers who established these therapies in the 1980s and 1990s.
763. Who discovered the autoimmune basis of Guillain-Barré syndrome?
Researchers who identified anti-ganglioside antibodies and molecular mimicry.
764. Who developed the first successful treatment for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)?
Researchers who established immunoglobulin, steroids and plasma exchange.
765. Who discovered the first successful treatment for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder using B-cell depleting therapies?
Researchers who established rituximab and later other agents.
766. Who developed the first successful treatment for autoimmune encephalitis using immunotherapy?
Researchers who characterised antibody-mediated encephalitis and its treatment.
767. Who discovered the NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis?
Josep Dalmau and colleagues.
768. Who developed the first successful treatment for stiff-person syndrome using immunotherapy and later other approaches?
Researchers who established the role of GABA-related antibodies and treatment.
769. Who discovered the first successful treatment for Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome?
Researchers who established 3,4-diaminopyridine and immunotherapy.
770. Who discovered the voltage-gated calcium channel antibodies in Lambert-Eaton syndrome?
Researchers in the 1980s and 1990s.
771. Who developed the first successful treatment for inclusion body myositis (still largely supportive)?
Researchers continuing to explore immunosuppressive and other approaches.
772. Who discovered the first successful treatment for dermatomyositis and polymyositis using steroids and immunosuppressants?
Researchers who established the standard of care over several decades.
773. Who developed the first successful treatment for amyopathic dermatomyositis-associated interstitial lung disease?
Researchers who refined immunosuppressive regimens.
774. Who discovered the first successful treatment for systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease using nintedanib and tocilizumab?
Researchers who conducted the key clinical trials.
775. Who developed the first successful treatment for ANCA-associated vasculitis using rituximab?
Researchers who established rituximab as an alternative to cyclophosphamide.
776. Who discovered the role of ANCA antibodies in vasculitis?
Researchers in the 1980s.
777. Who developed the first successful treatment for lupus nephritis using mycophenolate and later biologics?
Researchers who refined induction and maintenance regimens.
778. Who discovered the first successful biologic therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (belimumab)?
Researchers at Human Genome Sciences and GlaxoSmithKline.
779. Who developed the first successful CAR-T therapy for severe systemic lupus erythematosus?
Researchers in academic centres who reported early successful cases.
780. Who discovered the first successful treatment for rheumatoid arthritis using methotrexate?
Researchers who established low-dose methotrexate as a cornerstone therapy.
781. Who developed the first successful TNF inhibitor for rheumatoid arthritis (infliximab and etanercept)?
Researchers at Centocor, Immunex and academic collaborators.
782. Who discovered the role of TNF in rheumatoid arthritis?
Researchers including those who conducted early cytokine studies.
783. Who developed the first successful IL-6 inhibitor for rheumatoid arthritis (tocilizumab)?
Researchers at Chugai and Roche.
784. Who developed the first successful JAK inhibitor for rheumatoid arthritis (tofacitinib)?
Researchers at Pfizer.
785. Who discovered the JAK-STAT signalling pathway?
Researchers including those who characterised the Janus kinases and signal transducers.
786. Who developed the first successful treatment for psoriatic arthritis using biologics?
Researchers who extended TNF and later IL-17 and IL-23 inhibitors to this disease.
787. Who discovered the role of the IL-17/IL-23 axis in psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis?
Researchers who characterised these cytokine pathways.
788. Who developed the first successful IL-17 inhibitor for psoriasis (secukinumab)?
Researchers at Novartis.
789. Who developed the first successful IL-23 inhibitor for psoriasis?
Researchers at several companies including Janssen and Sun Pharma.
790. Who developed the first successful treatment for ankylosing spondylitis using TNF inhibitors?
Researchers who established these therapies for axial spondyloarthritis.
791. Who discovered the strong association of HLA-B27 with ankylosing spondylitis?
Researchers in the 1970s.
792. Who developed the first successful treatment for gout using allopurinol?
Researchers who developed the xanthine oxidase inhibitor.
793. Who discovered the role of uric acid in gout?
Researchers beginning with classical observations and later biochemical studies.
794. Who developed the first successful treatment for gout flares using colchicine and later other agents?
Researchers who refined the use of colchicine, NSAIDs and corticosteroids.
795. Who developed the first successful uricase therapy for severe gout (pegloticase)?
Researchers at Savient Pharmaceuticals.
796. Who developed the first successful treatment for osteoporosis using bisphosphonates?
Researchers who established alendronate and later other bisphosphonates.
797. Who discovered the role of RANKL in bone metabolism?
Researchers who characterised the RANK/RANKL/OPG system.
798. Who developed the first successful RANKL inhibitor for osteoporosis (denosumab)?
Researchers at Amgen.
799. Who developed the first successful sclerostin inhibitor for osteoporosis (romosozumab)?
Researchers at Amgen and UCB.
800. Who discovered the role of sclerostin in bone formation?
Researchers who studied the sclerostin gene and its pathway.
801. Who discovered the first successful treatment for osteoporosis using selective estrogen receptor modulators (raloxifene)?
Researchers at Eli Lilly.
802. Who developed the first successful parathyroid hormone analogue for osteoporosis (teriparatide)?
Researchers at Eli Lilly.
803. Who discovered the dual action of parathyroid hormone on bone?
Researchers who characterised anabolic versus catabolic effects.
804. Who developed the first successful treatment for hypophosphatasia using enzyme replacement (asfotase alfa)?
Researchers at Alexion Pharmaceuticals.
805. Who discovered the genetic cause of hypophosphatasia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ALPL gene.
806. Who developed the first successful treatment for X-linked hypophosphatemia using a FGF23 antibody (burosumab)?
Researchers at Ultragenyx and Kyowa Kirin.
807. Who discovered the role of FGF23 in phosphate metabolism?
Researchers who identified fibroblast growth factor 23.
808. Who developed the first successful treatment for primary hyperoxaluria using an RNAi therapeutic (lumasiran)?
Researchers at Alnylam Pharmaceuticals.
809. Who discovered the genetic causes of primary hyperoxaluria?
Researchers who identified mutations in AGXT and other genes.
810. Who developed the first successful treatment for acute hepatic porphyria using an RNAi therapeutic (givosiran)?
Researchers at Alnylam Pharmaceuticals.
811. Who discovered the enzyme defects responsible for the acute porphyrias?
Multiple research groups over several decades.
812. Who developed the first successful treatment for hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis using RNAi and antisense therapies?
Researchers at Alnylam (patisiran) and Ionis (inotersen).
813. Who discovered the genetic cause of hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis?
Researchers who identified mutations in the TTR gene.
814. Who developed the first successful stabiliser of transthyretin (tafamidis)?
Researchers at Pfizer.
815. Who discovered the role of transthyretin in amyloidosis?
Researchers who characterised the protein and its misfolding.
816. Who developed the first successful treatment for wild-type transthyretin amyloid cardiomyopathy?
Researchers who established tafamidis and later other agents.
817. Who discovered the high prevalence of wild-type TTR amyloidosis in older adults with heart failure?
Researchers using modern imaging and biopsy techniques.
818. Who developed the first successful treatment for Fabry disease using chaperone therapy (migalastat)?
Researchers at Amicus Therapeutics.
819. Who discovered the concept of pharmacological chaperones for lysosomal diseases?
Researchers who developed the approach for alpha-galactosidase and other enzymes.
820. Who developed the first successful treatment for phenylketonuria using dietary therapy?
Horst Bickel and others in the 1950s.
821. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in phenylketonuria?
Asbjørn Følling and later researchers who identified phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency.
822. Who developed the first successful enzyme substitution therapy for phenylketonuria (pegvaliase)?
Researchers at BioMarin.
823. Who developed the first successful gene therapy approaches for phenylketonuria now in trials?
Researchers at several biotechnology companies.
824. Who discovered the genetic cause of maple syrup urine disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase complex.
825. Who developed the first successful dietary and cofactor therapies for maple syrup urine disease?
Researchers who established the standard of care.
826. Who discovered the genetic cause of medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ACADM gene.
827. Who developed newborn screening programmes that detect MCAD deficiency and other metabolic disorders?
Researchers and public-health scientists who expanded tandem mass spectrometry screening.
828. Who pioneered the use of tandem mass spectrometry for newborn screening?
Researchers including those who adapted the technology for metabolic disease detection.
829. Who discovered the genetic cause of biotinidase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the BTD gene.
830. Who developed the simple and effective biotin treatment for biotinidase deficiency?
Researchers who established lifelong biotin supplementation.
831. Who discovered the genetic cause of galactosemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GALT gene and related genes.
832. Who developed the dietary treatment for classical galactosemia?
Researchers who established lactose- and galactose-restricted diets.
833. Who discovered the genetic cause of glycogen storage disease type I (von Gierke disease)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the glucose-6-phosphatase gene.
834. Who developed the dietary and medical management for glycogen storage disease type I?
Researchers who established cornstarch therapy and other interventions.
835. Who discovered the genetic cause of Pompe disease (glycogen storage disease type II)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GAA gene.
836. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for late-onset Pompe disease?
Researchers at Genzyme and later other companies.
837. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type I (Hurler syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the IDUA gene.
838. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for mucopolysaccharidosis type I?
Researchers at Genzyme (laronidase).
839. Who developed the first successful hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for Hurler syndrome?
Researchers who established early transplantation as a disease-modifying therapy.
840. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type II (Hunter syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the IDS gene.
841. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Hunter syndrome?
Researchers at Shire (idursulfase).
842. Who discovered the genetic cause of metachromatic leukodystrophy?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ARSA gene.
843. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for metachromatic leukodystrophy?
Researchers at Orchard Therapeutics and academic collaborators.
844. Who discovered the genetic cause of adrenoleukodystrophy?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ABCD1 gene.
845. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy?
Researchers at bluebird bio (elivaldogene autotemcel).
846. Who discovered the role of very-long-chain fatty acids in adrenoleukodystrophy?
Researchers who characterised the biochemical defect.
847. Who developed the first successful treatment for spinal muscular atrophy using an SMN2 splicing modifier (risdiplam)?
Researchers at PTC Therapeutics and Roche.
848. Who discovered the dual SMN1/SMN2 gene system in spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers who characterised the genomic region and disease mechanism.
849. Who developed the first successful AAV gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy (onasemnogene abeparvovec)?
Researchers at AveXis/Novartis.
850. Who pioneered the use of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors for gene therapy?
Researchers including those who developed early AAV systems and later clinical applications.
851. Who discovered the first successful AAV gene therapy approved for a retinal disease (voretigene neparvovec)?
Researchers at Spark Therapeutics.
852. Who developed the first successful AAV gene therapy for haemophilia B?
Researchers at several companies including uniQure and Spark/Pfizer.
853. Who discovered the genetic cause of haemophilia A and B?
Researchers who identified mutations in the F8 and F9 genes.
854. Who developed the first successful factor VIII and factor IX replacement therapies?
Researchers who purified and later recombinant-produced clotting factors.
855. Who developed the first successful extended half-life clotting factor products?
Researchers at several companies who engineered Fc-fusion and other modified factors.
856. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for haemophilia A now in advanced trials or approved in some regions?
Researchers at BioMarin and other companies.
857. Who discovered the genetic cause of sickle cell disease at the DNA level?
Researchers who sequenced the beta-globin gene mutation.
858. Who developed the first successful CRISPR-Cas9 therapy for sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex (exagamglogene autotemcel).
859. Who developed the first successful lentiviral gene therapy for beta-thalassemia and sickle cell disease?
Researchers at bluebird bio (betibeglogene autotemcel and lovotibeglogene autotemcel).
860. Who pioneered the use of lentiviral vectors for haematopoietic stem-cell gene therapy?
Researchers who adapted HIV-based vectors for safer clinical use.
861. Who discovered the genetic cause of beta-thalassemia?
Researchers who identified the many mutations affecting the beta-globin gene.
862. Who developed the first successful haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for thalassemia?
Researchers who established matched-sibling and later alternative-donor transplants.
863. Who discovered the genetic cause of alpha-thalassemia?
Researchers who characterised deletions and mutations in the alpha-globin gene cluster.
864. Who developed the first successful treatments for severe alpha-thalassemia (Bart’s hydrops fetalis)?
Researchers who pioneered intrauterine transfusions and postnatal transplantation.
865. Who discovered the genetic cause of Fanconi anaemia?
Researchers who identified the multiple FANC genes involved in DNA repair.
866. Who developed the first successful gene therapy approaches for Fanconi anaemia?
Researchers at academic centres and biotechnology companies.
867. Who discovered the genetic cause of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) due to ADA deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ADA gene.
868. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for ADA-SCID?
Researchers who performed the early trials and later commercialised the therapy (Strimvelis).
869. Who discovered the genetic cause of X-linked SCID?
Researchers who identified mutations in the IL2RG gene.
870. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for X-linked SCID?
Researchers in Paris, London and later other centres; early trials led to improved vectors.
871. Who pioneered the use of gene therapy for primary immunodeficiencies?
Researchers including those who conducted the first successful trials in the 1990s and 2000s.
872. Who discovered the genetic cause of Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the WAS gene.
873. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome?
Researchers at academic centres using lentiviral vectors.
874. Who discovered the genetic cause of chronic granulomatous disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the NADPH oxidase genes.
875. Who developed the first successful gene therapy approaches for chronic granulomatous disease?
Researchers who refined vectors to improve safety and efficacy.
876. Who discovered the genetic cause of leukocyte adhesion deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ITGB2 gene and related genes.
877. Who developed the first successful treatments for leukocyte adhesion deficiency using transplantation and later gene therapy?
Researchers who established these approaches.
878. Who discovered the genetic cause of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH)?
Researchers who identified mutations in perforin and related genes.
879. Who developed the first successful treatment protocols for primary HLH?
Researchers who established the HLH-94 and later treatment regimens.
880. Who discovered the genetic cause of X-linked lymphoproliferative disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SH2D1A gene.
881. Who developed the first successful treatments for X-linked lymphoproliferative disease?
Researchers who established transplantation and supportive care.
882. Who discovered the genetic cause of familial Mediterranean fever?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MEFV gene.
883. Who developed the first successful treatment for familial Mediterranean fever using colchicine?
Researchers who established lifelong colchicine therapy.
884. Who discovered the genetic cause of cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes?
Researchers who identified mutations in the NLRP3 gene.
885. Who developed the first successful treatment for cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes using IL-1 inhibitors?
Researchers who established anakinra, rilonacept and canakinumab.
886. Who discovered the role of the inflammasome in autoinflammatory diseases?
Researchers who characterised the NLRP3 inflammasome and related complexes.
887. Who developed the first successful treatment for tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS)?
Researchers who established etanercept and later other biologics.
888. Who discovered the genetic cause of TRAPS?
Researchers who identified mutations in the TNFRSF1A gene.
889. Who developed the first successful treatment for hyper-IgD syndrome using biologics?
Researchers who established IL-1 and other cytokine blockers.
890. Who discovered the genetic cause of hyper-IgD syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MVK gene.
891. Who developed the first successful treatment for Blau syndrome and early-onset sarcoidosis?
Researchers who established immunosuppressive and biologic therapies.
892. Who discovered the genetic cause of Blau syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the NOD2 gene.
893. Who developed the first successful treatment for deficiency of adenosine deaminase 2 (DADA2)?
Researchers who established TNF inhibitors as effective therapy.
894. Who discovered the genetic cause of DADA2?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ADA2 gene.
895. Who developed the first successful treatment for STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI)?
Researchers who established JAK inhibitors as therapy.
896. Who discovered the genetic cause of SAVI?
Researchers who identified gain-of-function mutations in the STING1 gene.
897. Who developed the first successful treatment for COPA syndrome?
Researchers who established immunosuppressive and JAK-inhibitor approaches.
898. Who discovered the genetic cause of COPA syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the COPA gene.
899. Who developed the first successful treatment for activated PI3K delta syndrome (APDS)?
Researchers who established leniolisib and other targeted therapies.
900. Who discovered the genetic cause of activated PI3K delta syndrome?
Researchers who identified gain-of-function mutations in the PIK3CD gene.
Why
Indian Govt Jobs are the New Global Standard for China, Brazil & Vietnam
901. Who discovered the first successful treatment for hereditary angioedema using C1-inhibitor concentrate?
Researchers who developed plasma-derived and later recombinant C1-inhibitor therapies.
902. Who discovered the genetic cause of hereditary angioedema?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SERPING1 gene.
903. Who developed the first successful oral treatment for hereditary angioedema (berotralstat)?
Researchers at BioCryst Pharmaceuticals.
904. Who developed the first successful monoclonal antibody for hereditary angioedema (lanadelumab)?
Researchers at Shire/Takeda.
905. Who discovered the role of kallikrein in hereditary angioedema attacks?
Researchers who characterised the contact system pathway.
906. Who developed the first successful treatment for acute intermittent porphyria using givosiran?
Researchers at Alnylam Pharmaceuticals.
907. Who discovered the first successful treatment for primary hyperoxaluria type 1 using lumasiran and nedosiran?
Researchers at Alnylam and Dicerna/Novo Nordisk.
908. Who developed the first successful treatment for amyloidosis caused by apolipoprotein A-I mutations?
Researchers exploring organ transplantation and emerging stabilisers.
909. Who discovered the genetic causes of hereditary apolipoprotein A-I amyloidosis?
Researchers who identified mutations in the APOA1 gene.
910. Who developed the first successful treatment for lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (Wolman disease and cholesteryl ester storage disease)?
Researchers at Alexion (sebelipase alfa).
911. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in lysosomal acid lipase deficiency?
Researchers who identified LIPA gene mutations.
912. Who developed the first successful treatment for alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency using augmentation therapy?
Researchers who established plasma-derived alpha-1 antitrypsin infusion.
913. Who discovered the genetic cause of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SERPINA1 gene.
914. Who developed the first successful RNA-targeted therapies for alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency now in trials?
Researchers at Arrowhead, Takeda and other companies.
915. Who discovered the genetic cause of Wilson disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ATP7B gene.
916. Who developed the first successful treatment for Wilson disease using penicillamine and later trientine and zinc?
John Walshe and other researchers who established chelation and zinc therapy.
917. Who discovered the genetic cause of hereditary haemochromatosis?
Researchers who identified the C282Y mutation in the HFE gene.
918. Who developed the first successful treatment for hereditary haemochromatosis using therapeutic phlebotomy?
Researchers who established regular blood removal as standard care.
919. Who discovered the genetic cause of alpha-mannosidosis?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MAN2B1 gene.
920. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for alpha-mannosidosis?
Researchers at Chiesi (velmanase alfa).
921. Who discovered the genetic cause of aspartylglucosaminuria?
Researchers who identified mutations in the AGA gene.
922. Who developed the first successful treatment approaches for aspartylglucosaminuria?
Researchers exploring enzyme replacement and gene therapy.
923. Who discovered the genetic cause of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (Batten disease)?
Researchers who identified multiple CLN gene mutations.
924. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for CLN2 disease (cerliponase alfa)?
Researchers at BioMarin.
925. Who discovered the genetic cause of Niemann-Pick disease type C?
Researchers who identified mutations in the NPC1 and NPC2 genes.
926. Who developed the first successful treatment for Niemann-Pick disease type C using miglustat and later other agents?
Researchers who established substrate reduction and emerging therapies.
927. Who discovered the genetic cause of Niemann-Pick disease types A and B?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SMPD1 gene.
928. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for acid sphingomyelinase deficiency?
Researchers at Sanofi (olipudase alfa).
929. Who discovered the genetic cause of Gaucher disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GBA gene.
930. Who developed the first successful substrate reduction therapies for Gaucher disease?
Researchers who developed miglustat and eliglustat.
931. Who discovered the genetic cause of Fabry disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GLA gene.
932. Who developed the first successful chaperone therapy for amenable Fabry mutations?
Researchers at Amicus Therapeutics (migalastat).
933. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type III (Sanfilippo syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SGSH, NAGLU, HGSNAT and GNS genes.
934. Who developed the first successful gene therapy and enzyme approaches for Sanfilippo syndrome now in trials?
Researchers at several biotechnology companies and academic centres.
935. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type IV (Morquio syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GALNS and GLB1 genes.
936. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Morquio A syndrome?
Researchers at BioMarin (elosulfase alfa).
937. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type VI (Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ARSB gene.
938. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome?
Researchers at BioMarin (galsulfase).
939. Who discovered the genetic cause of mucopolysaccharidosis type VII (Sly syndrome)?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GUSB gene.
940. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Sly syndrome?
Researchers at Ultragenyx (vestronidase alfa).
941. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystinosis?
Researchers who identified mutations in the CTNS gene.
942. Who developed the first successful treatment for cystinosis using cysteamine?
Researchers who established oral and later ophthalmic cysteamine therapy.
943. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystinuria?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 genes.
944. Who developed the first successful treatment for cystinuria using tiopronin and hydration?
Researchers who established thiol drugs and preventive measures.
945. Who discovered the genetic cause of primary hyperoxaluria types 2 and 3?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GRHPR and HOGA1 genes.
946. Who developed the first successful RNAi therapies for primary hyperoxaluria?
Researchers at Alnylam and Dicerna.
947. Who discovered the genetic cause of adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the APRT gene.
948. Who developed the first successful treatment for APRT deficiency using allopurinol and dietary measures?
Researchers who established xanthine oxidase inhibition.
949. Who discovered the genetic cause of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the HPRT1 gene.
950. Who developed the first successful management approaches for Lesch-Nyhan syndrome?
Researchers who established allopurinol, supportive care and experimental therapies.
951. Who discovered the genetic cause of ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the OTC gene.
952. Who developed the first successful treatment for urea cycle disorders using nitrogen scavengers?
Researchers who established sodium benzoate, phenylacetate and later glycerol phenylbutyrate.
953. Who developed the first successful gene therapy approaches for ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency now in trials?
Researchers at several companies and academic groups.
954. Who discovered the genetic cause of citrullinemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ASS1 and SLC25A13 genes.
955. Who developed the first successful dietary and scavenger therapies for citrullinemia?
Researchers who established standard metabolic management.
956. Who discovered the genetic cause of argininosuccinic aciduria?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ASL gene.
957. Who developed the first successful treatment for argininosuccinic aciduria using arginine supplementation?
Researchers who established the metabolic treatment protocol.
958. Who discovered the genetic cause of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the CPS1 gene.
959. Who developed the first successful management for severe urea cycle disorders including transplantation?
Researchers who established liver transplantation as a curative option.
960. Who discovered the genetic cause of maple syrup urine disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the BCKDHA, BCKDHB and DBT genes.
961. Who developed the first successful dietary therapy for maple syrup urine disease?
Researchers who established branched-chain amino acid restriction.
962. Who discovered the genetic cause of isovaleric acidemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the IVD gene.
963. Who developed the first successful treatment for isovaleric acidemia using glycine and carnitine?
Researchers who established the metabolic management.
964. Who discovered the genetic cause of propionic acidemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the PCCA and PCCB genes.
965. Who developed the first successful treatment for propionic acidemia using dietary therapy and carnitine?
Researchers who established the standard of care.
966. Who discovered the genetic cause of methylmalonic acidemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MUT and related cobalamin genes.
967. Who developed the first successful treatment for methylmalonic acidemia including vitamin B12-responsive forms?
Researchers who established diet, carnitine and cobalamin therapy.
968. Who discovered the genetic cause of glutaric aciduria type 1?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GCDH gene.
969. Who developed the first successful emergency treatment protocols for glutaric aciduria type 1?
Researchers who established the management of acute encephalopathic crises.
970. Who discovered the genetic cause of 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MCCC1 and MCCC2 genes.
971. Who developed newborn screening and management for 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency?
Researchers and public-health programmes that included it in screening panels.
972. Who discovered the genetic cause of biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SLC19A3 gene.
973. Who developed the first successful treatment for biotin-thiamine-responsive basal ganglia disease?
Researchers who established high-dose biotin and thiamine therapy.
974. Who discovered the genetic cause of cerebral creatine deficiency syndromes?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GAMT, GATM and SLC6A8 genes.
975. Who developed the first successful treatment for guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency using creatine supplementation?
Researchers who established the metabolic therapy.
976. Who discovered the genetic cause of molybdenum cofactor deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the MOCS1, MOCS2 and GPHN genes.
977. Who developed the first successful treatment for molybdenum cofactor deficiency type A using cyclic pyranopterin monophosphate?
Researchers at Origin Biosciences (fosdenopterin).
978. Who discovered the genetic cause of sulphite oxidase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SUOX gene.
979. Who developed the first successful management approaches for sulphite oxidase deficiency?
Researchers who established dietary and supportive therapies.
980. Who discovered the genetic cause of non-ketotic hyperglycinaemia?
Researchers who identified mutations in the GLDC, AMT and GCSH genes.
981. Who developed the first successful treatment approaches for non-ketotic hyperglycinaemia?
Researchers who established sodium benzoate, dextromethorphan and supportive care.
982. Who discovered the genetic cause of pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy?
Researchers who identified mutations in the ALDH7A1 gene.
983. Who developed the first successful treatment for pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy using vitamin B6?
Researchers who established lifelong pyridoxine supplementation.
984. Who discovered the genetic cause of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent epilepsy?
Researchers who identified mutations in the PNPO gene.
985. Who developed the first successful treatment for PNPO deficiency using pyridoxal phosphate?
Researchers who established the specific vitamin therapy.
986. Who discovered the genetic cause of folinic acid-responsive seizures?
Researchers who characterised the condition and its response to folinic acid.
987. Who developed the first successful treatment for cerebral folate deficiency using folinic acid?
Researchers who established high-dose folinic acid therapy.
988. Who discovered the genetic cause of glucose transporter type 1 deficiency syndrome?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SLC2A1 gene.
989. Who developed the first successful treatment for Glut1 deficiency using the ketogenic diet?
Researchers who established the ketogenic diet as standard therapy.
990. Who discovered the genetic cause of creatine transporter deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SLC6A8 gene.
991. Who developed the first successful treatment approaches for creatine transporter deficiency?
Researchers exploring creatine analogues and other experimental therapies.
992. Who discovered the genetic cause of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the DDC gene.
993. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency?
Researchers who developed eladocagene exuparvovec.
994. Who discovered the genetic cause of tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the TH gene.
995. Who developed the first successful treatment for tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency using L-DOPA?
Researchers who established dopamine precursor therapy.
996. Who discovered the genetic cause of sepiapterin reductase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the SPR gene.
997. Who developed the first successful treatment for sepiapterin reductase deficiency using L-DOPA and 5-hydroxytryptophan?
Researchers who established neurotransmitter replacement therapy.
998. Who discovered the genetic cause of 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase deficiency?
Researchers who identified mutations in the PTS gene.
999. Who developed the first successful treatment for tetrahydrobiopterin deficiencies using BH4, L-DOPA and 5-hydroxytryptophan?
Researchers who established the combined therapy protocol.
1000. How can global students and jobseekers use knowledge of worldwide scientists and their discoveries to build successful careers in science, medicine and technology?
By studying their research methods, persistence, collaboration styles, educational paths and problem-solving approaches; understanding the history of major discoveries builds critical thinking, inspires innovation and highlights the skills (rigorous experimentation, clear communication, ethical responsibility and lifelong learning) that universities, research institutes and employers worldwide value.
1001. Who is known as the Father of the Green Revolution in India?
M.S. Swaminathan.
1002. Who discovered the Raman Effect and in which year did he receive the Nobel Prize?
C.V. Raman discovered it in 1928 and received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.
1003. Who was the first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics?
C.V. Raman.
1004. Who is known as the Father of Indian Nuclear Science?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1005. Who founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1006. Who is known as the Missile Man of India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1007. Who was the Project Director of India’s first Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3)?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1008. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Space Programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1009. Who established the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1010. Who was the first Chairman of ISRO?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1011. Who discovered the Saha Ionisation Equation?
Meghnad Saha.
1012. Who is known for Bose-Einstein Statistics?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1013. Who collaborated with Albert Einstein on quantum statistics?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1014. Who calculated the Chandrasekhar Limit?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1015. What is the value of the Chandrasekhar Limit?
Approximately 1.4 times the mass of the Sun.
1016. Who was the first Indian-origin scientist to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics after C.V. Raman?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1983).
1017. Who is known as the Father of Indian Chemistry?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1018. Who founded Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1019. Who is known for pioneering work in radio and plant science in India?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1020. Who demonstrated that plants have life and respond to stimuli?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1021. Who invented the crescograph to measure plant growth?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1022. Who was the first Indian woman to receive a PhD in science?
Janaki Ammal (cytogenetics and plant breeding).
1023. Who is known for her work on sugarcane and eggplant genetics in India?
Janaki Ammal.
1024. Who discovered the process of natural selection independently of Charles Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace.
1025. Who wrote the book “The Origin of Species”?
Charles Darwin.
1026. In which year was “On the Origin of Species” published?
1859.
1027. Who is known as the Father of Genetics?
Gregor Mendel.
1028. What plants did Mendel use for his experiments on inheritance?
Pea plants (Pisum sativum).
1029. Who proposed the laws of inheritance?
Gregor Mendel.
1030. Who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick.
1031. In which year was the structure of DNA discovered?
1953.
1032. Who provided the critical X-ray diffraction image of DNA known as Photo 51?
Rosalind Franklin.
1033. Who is known as the Father of Modern Physics?
Albert Einstein (often also associated with Galileo or Newton depending on context).
1034. Who proposed the Special Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein in 1905.
1035. Who proposed the General Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein in 1915.
1036. What is Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence formula?
E = mc².
1037. Who received the Nobel Prize for the photoelectric effect?
Albert Einstein in 1921.
1038. Who discovered the electron?
J.J. Thomson in 1897.
1039. Who proposed the plum-pudding model of the atom?
J.J. Thomson.
1040. Who performed the gold-foil experiment?
Ernest Rutherford.
1041. Who discovered the nucleus of the atom?
Ernest Rutherford.
1042. Who proposed the planetary model of the atom?
Ernest Rutherford.
1043. Who proposed the Bohr model of the atom?
Niels Bohr.
1044. Who discovered the neutron?
James Chadwick in 1932.
1045. Who is known as the Father of Nuclear Physics?
Ernest Rutherford.
1046. Who discovered radioactivity?
Henri Becquerel in 1896.
1047. Who coined the term “radioactivity”?
Marie Curie.
1048. Who discovered the elements polonium and radium?
Marie Curie and Pierre Curie.
1049. Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize?
Marie Curie.
1050. Who was the first person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields?
Marie Curie (Physics 1903 and Chemistry 1911).
1051. Who proposed the periodic table of elements?
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
1052. Who discovered the inert gases helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon?
William Ramsay (with Lord Rayleigh for argon).
1053. Who is known as the Father of Modern Chemistry?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1054. Who named oxygen and hydrogen?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1055. Who discovered the law of conservation of mass?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1056. Who invented the battery?
Alessandro Volta.
1057. Who discovered electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
1058. Who formulated the laws of electrolysis?
Michael Faraday.
1059. Who proposed the concept of the magnetic field?
Michael Faraday.
1060. Who unified electricity, magnetism and light through four equations?
James Clerk Maxwell.
1061. Who discovered X-rays?
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895.
1062. Who received the first Nobel Prize in Physics?
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1901.
1063. Who discovered penicillin?
Alexander Fleming in 1928.
1064. Who developed the practical method to mass-produce penicillin?
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
1065. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacterium?
Robert Koch.
1066. Who formulated Koch’s postulates?
Robert Koch.
1067. Who is known as the Father of Microbiology?
Louis Pasteur (also Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is called the Father of Microbiology).
1068. Who developed the process of pasteurisation?
Louis Pasteur.
1069. Who developed the first vaccine for rabies?
Louis Pasteur.
1070. Who developed the first vaccine for smallpox?
Edward Jenner.
1071. Who is known as the Father of Immunology?
Edward Jenner (or Louis Pasteur in some contexts).
1072. Who discovered the circulation of blood?
William Harvey.
1073. Who is known as the Father of Modern Anatomy?
Andreas Vesalius.
1074. Who proposed the heliocentric theory?
Nicolaus Copernicus.
1075. Who wrote “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium”?
Nicolaus Copernicus.
1076. Who improved the telescope and discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter?
Galileo Galilei.
1077. Who formulated the three laws of planetary motion?
Johannes Kepler.
1078. Who wrote “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica”?
Isaac Newton.
1079. Who formulated the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation?
Isaac Newton.
1080. Who discovered the composition of white light?
Isaac Newton.
1081. Who invented the reflecting telescope?
Isaac Newton.
1082. Who is known as the Father of Experimental Physics?
Galileo Galilei.
1083. Who proposed the concept of inertia?
Galileo Galilei (later refined by Newton).
1084. Who discovered the expansion of the universe?
Edwin Hubble.
1085. What is Hubble’s Law?
The velocity of recession of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance from us.
1086. Who proposed the Big Bang theory?
Georges Lemaître.
1087. Who discovered cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
1088. Who predicted Hawking radiation from black holes?
Stephen Hawking.
1089. Who wrote “A Brief History of Time”?
Stephen Hawking.
1090. Who discovered the first exoplanet orbiting a sun-like star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.
1091. Who developed the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1092. Who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020 for gene editing?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1093. Who discovered artemisinin for the treatment of malaria?
Tu Youyou.
1094. Who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for artemisinin?
Tu Youyou.
1095. Who is known as the Father of Hybrid Rice?
Yuan Longping.
1096. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee.
1097. Who is considered the first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
1098. Who proposed the Turing Test?
Alan Turing.
1099. Who is known as the Father of the Computer?
Charles Babbage.
1100. Who developed the concept of the analytical engine?
Charles Babbage.
1101. Who discovered the laws of electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
1102. Who invented the electric dynamo?
Michael Faraday.
1103. Who discovered benzene?
Michael Faraday.
1104. Who proposed the wave theory of light?
Christiaan Huygens (later supported by Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel).
1105. Who performed the double-slit experiment demonstrating the wave nature of light?
Thomas Young.
1106. Who discovered the photoelectric effect?
Heinrich Hertz (observed); explained by Albert Einstein.
1107. Who proposed the quantum theory of radiation?
Max Planck in 1900.
1108. What is Planck’s constant approximately equal to?
6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ joule-second.
1109. Who proposed the uncertainty principle?
Werner Heisenberg.
1110. Who developed the wave equation in quantum mechanics?
Erwin Schrödinger.
1111. Who proposed the concept of antimatter?
Paul Dirac.
1112. Who discovered the positron?
Carl Anderson in 1932.
1113. Who formulated the exclusion principle?
Wolfgang Pauli.
1114. Who developed quantum electrodynamics?
Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.
1115. Who invented Feynman diagrams?
Richard Feynman.
1116. Who predicted the existence of the meson?
Hideki Yukawa.
1117. Who received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for a Japanese scientist?
Hideki Yukawa in 1949.
1118. Who discovered the pi-meson experimentally?
Cecil Powell.
1119. Who proposed the quark model?
Murray Gell-Mann and independently George Zweig.
1120. Who coined the term “quark”?
Murray Gell-Mann.
1121. Who discovered the Omega-minus particle?
A team at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1964.
1122. Who predicted the W and Z bosons?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg.
1123. Who experimentally discovered the W and Z bosons?
Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer at CERN in 1983.
1124. Who proposed the Higgs mechanism?
Peter Higgs, François Englert and Robert Brout.
1125. Who received the Nobel Prize for the Higgs mechanism?
François Englert and Peter Higgs in 2013.
1126. Who discovered the Higgs boson experimentally?
Teams at the Large Hadron Collider (ATLAS and CMS) in 2012.
1127. Who proposed the theory of continental drift?
Alfred Wegener.
1128. Who wrote “The Origin of Continents and Oceans”?
Alfred Wegener.
1129. Who developed the theory of plate tectonics?
Harry Hess, Tuzo Wilson and others.
1130. Who discovered seafloor spreading?
Harry Hess.
1131. Who proposed the Gaia hypothesis?
James Lovelock.
1132. Who discovered the ozone hole over Antarctica?
Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin in 1985.
1133. Who predicted ozone depletion by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)?
Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland.
1134. Who received the Nobel Prize for work on ozone depletion?
Mario Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland and Paul Crutzen in 1995.
1135. Who first calculated the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide?
Svante Arrhenius in 1896.
1136. Who is known as the Father of Modern Meteorology?
Vilhelm Bjerknes.
1137. Who invented the barometer?
Evangelista Torricelli.
1138. Who discovered infrared radiation?
William Herschel in 1800.
1139. Who discovered ultraviolet radiation?
Johann Wilhelm Ritter in 1801.
1140. Who discovered Uranus?
William Herschel in 1781.
1141. Who discovered Neptune through mathematical calculations?
Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams.
1142. Who first observed Neptune through a telescope?
Johann Galle in 1846.
1143. Who discovered Pluto?
Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
1144. Who discovered the rings of Saturn?
Christiaan Huygens.
1145. Who discovered Titan, the largest moon of Saturn?
Christiaan Huygens.
1146. Who discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter?
Galileo Galilei.
1147. What are the names of the four Galilean moons?
Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
1148. Who formulated the inverse-square law of gravitation?
Isaac Newton.
1149. Who developed calculus independently of Newton?
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
1150. Who invented the coordinate geometry system?
René Descartes.
1151. Who is known as the Father of Geometry?
Euclid.
1152. Who wrote “The Elements”?
Euclid.
1153. Who proved the fundamental theorem of algebra?
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
1154. Who is known as the Prince of Mathematicians?
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
1155. Who developed non-Euclidean geometry?
Nikolai Lobachevsky and János Bolyai.
1156. Who created modern set theory?
Georg Cantor.
1157. Who invented logarithms?
John Napier.
1158. Who developed the binomial theorem for fractional indices?
Isaac Newton.
1159. Who formulated the laws of probability with Fermat?
Blaise Pascal.
1160. Who invented the mechanical calculator called the Pascaline?
Blaise Pascal.
1161. Who developed Fourier series?
Joseph Fourier.
1162. Who discovered the first asteroid (Ceres)?
Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801.
1163. Who calculated the orbit of Ceres using the least-squares method?
Carl Friedrich Gauss.
1164. Who invented the method of least squares?
Carl Friedrich Gauss and Adrien-Marie Legendre.
1165. Who discovered the first comet whose return was predicted?
Edmond Halley (Halley’s Comet).
1166. Who developed the first successful liquid-fuel rocket?
Robert Goddard.
1167. Who is known as the Father of Modern Rocketry?
Robert Goddard (along with Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth).
1168. Who launched the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1?
The Soviet Union under Sergei Korolev in 1957.
1169. Who was the first human to travel into space?
Yuri Gagarin in 1961.
1170. Who was the first human to walk on the Moon?
Neil Armstrong on 20 July 1969.
1171. Who was the first woman in space?
Valentina Tereshkova in 1963.
1172. Who was the first Indian in space?
Rakesh Sharma in 1984.
1173. Who was the first Indian-origin woman in space?
Kalpana Chawla.
1174. Who developed the Saturn V rocket?
Wernher von Braun and his team.
1175. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Missile Programme?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1176. Who directed the development of India’s Agni and Prithvi missiles?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1177. Who was the first Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) after Vikram Sarabhai?
Satish Dhawan.
1178. Who is known for the development of India’s first satellite Aryabhata?
ISRO under Vikram Sarabhai and later Satish Dhawan.
1179. Who discovered the Van Allen radiation belts?
James Van Allen.
1180. Who proposed the idea of geostationary communication satellites?
Arthur C. Clarke in 1945.
1181. Who invented the first practical telephone?
Alexander Graham Bell.
1182. Who invented the phonograph?
Thomas Alva Edison.
1183. Who invented the practical incandescent light bulb?
Thomas Alva Edison.
1184. Who invented the motion picture camera (Kinetoscope)?
Thomas Alva Edison and William Dickson.
1185. Who is known for contributions to alternating current and the induction motor?
Nikola Tesla.
1186. Who invented the radio (practical wireless telegraphy)?
Guglielmo Marconi.
1187. Who received the Nobel Prize for wireless telegraphy?
Guglielmo Marconi in 1909.
1188. Who discovered the electron spin?
George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit.
1189. Who discovered superconductivity?
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.
1190. Who developed the BCS theory of superconductivity?
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer.
1191. Who invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1947.
1192. Who invented the laser?
Theodore Maiman in 1960 (first working laser).
1193. Who developed the maser?
Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow.
1194. Who discovered graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov in 2004.
1195. Who received the Nobel Prize for graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov in 2010.
1196. Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
1197. Who invented the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska.
1198. Who discovered the structure of insulin?
Frederick Sanger (sequence) and Dorothy Hodgkin (crystal structure).
1199. Who developed the first method to sequence DNA?
Frederick Sanger.
1200. Who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Kary Mullis.
How
to Apply for Indian Govt Jobs from USA, UK, Canada (2026)
1201. Who discovered the ABO blood group system?
Karl Landsteiner.
1202. Who discovered the Rh factor in blood?
Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener.
1203. Who developed the first successful polio vaccine?
Jonas Salk.
1204. Who developed the oral polio vaccine?
Albert Sabin.
1205. Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting and Charles Best.
1206. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin?
Frederick Banting and John Macleod in 1923.
1207. Who developed the first successful vaccine for measles?
John Enders and his team.
1208. Who developed vaccines for mumps, measles and rubella?
Maurice Hilleman.
1209. Who is credited with developing more than 40 vaccines?
Maurice Hilleman.
1210. Who discovered the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi.
1211. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of HIV?
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi in 2008.
1212. Who discovered prions?
Stanley Prusiner.
1213. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of prions?
Stanley Prusiner in 1997.
1214. Who developed the first successful in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) technique?
Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe.
1215. Who received the Nobel Prize for the development of IVF?
Robert Edwards in 2010.
1216. Who was the first baby born through IVF?
Louise Brown in 1978.
1217. Who discovered the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath.
1218. Who received the Nobel Prize for the structure of the ribosome?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath in 2009.
1219. Who developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)?
Shinya Yamanaka.
1220. Who received the Nobel Prize for iPS cells?
Shinya Yamanaka and John Gurdon in 2012.
1221. Who first cloned a vertebrate from a somatic cell nucleus?
John Gurdon (using frogs).
1222. Who created the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep?
Ian Wilmut and his team in 1996.
1223. Who developed the hybridoma technique for monoclonal antibodies?
Georges Köhler and César Milstein.
1224. Who received the Nobel Prize for monoclonal antibodies?
Georges Köhler, César Milstein and Niels Jerne in 1984.
1225. Who discovered the first oncogene?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop.
1226. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of cellular oncogenes?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop in 1989.
1227. Who discovered restriction enzymes?
Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans.
1228. Who received the Nobel Prize for restriction enzymes?
Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans in 1978.
1229. Who developed recombinant DNA technology?
Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen.
1230. Who received the Nobel Prize related to recombinant DNA?
Paul Berg in 1980 (shared with Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger).
1231. Who invented Southern blotting?
Edwin Southern.
1232. Who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Kary Mullis.
1233. Who received the Nobel Prize for PCR?
Kary Mullis in 1993.
1234. Who discovered reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin and David Baltimore.
1235. Who received the Nobel Prize for reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin, David Baltimore and Renato Dulbecco in 1975.
1236. Who proposed the central dogma of molecular biology?
Francis Crick.
1237. Who discovered messenger RNA?
Sydney Brenner, François Jacob and Matthew Meselson.
1238. Who discovered the operon model of gene regulation?
François Jacob and Jacques Monod.
1239. Who received the Nobel Prize for the operon theory?
François Jacob, Jacques Monod and André Lwoff in 1965.
1240. Who demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material?
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty.
1241. Who performed the Hershey-Chase experiment?
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase.
1242. Who discovered the transforming principle in bacteria?
Frederick Griffith.
1243. Who proposed the chromosome theory of inheritance?
Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri.
1244. Who discovered sex-linked inheritance?
Thomas Hunt Morgan.
1245. Who received the Nobel Prize for work on chromosomes and heredity?
Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1933.
1246. Who created the first genetic map?
Alfred Sturtevant.
1247. Who discovered the cell nucleus?
Robert Brown.
1248. Who coined the term “cell”?
Robert Hooke.
1249. Who proposed the cell theory?
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden.
1250. Who stated that all cells arise from pre-existing cells?
Rudolf Virchow.
1251. Who is known as the Father of Microbiology for observing bacteria?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
1252. Who improved the microscope and observed microorganisms?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
1253. Who discovered the circulation of blood in the human body?
William Harvey.
1254. Who wrote “De Humani Corporis Fabrica”?
Andreas Vesalius.
1255. Who is known as the Father of Modern Anatomy?
Andreas Vesalius.
1256. Who developed the first antiseptic methods in surgery?
Joseph Lister.
1257. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacillus?
Robert Koch.
1258. Who discovered the cholera bacterium?
Robert Koch.
1259. Who developed the germ theory of disease along with Pasteur?
Robert Koch.
1260. Who developed the rabies vaccine?
Louis Pasteur.
1261. Who developed the process of pasteurisation?
Louis Pasteur.
1262. Who developed the first smallpox vaccine?
Edward Jenner.
1263. Who discovered the anthrax bacterium?
Robert Koch (and earlier observed by others).
1264. Who developed the first successful treatment for syphilis using Salvarsan?
Paul Ehrlich.
1265. Who is known as the Father of Chemotherapy?
Paul Ehrlich.
1266. Who discovered the diphtheria toxin?
Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin.
1267. Who developed the diphtheria antitoxin?
Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato.
1268. Who received the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine?
Emil von Behring in 1901.
1269. Who discovered the plague bacterium?
Alexandre Yersin and Shibasaburo Kitasato.
1270. Who developed the first plague vaccine?
Waldemar Haffkine.
1271. Who developed the first cholera vaccine?
Waldemar Haffkine.
1272. Who discovered the malaria parasite’s transmission by mosquitoes?
Ronald Ross.
1273. Who received the Nobel Prize for work on malaria?
Ronald Ross in 1902.
1274. Who discovered the yellow fever vaccine?
Max Theiler.
1275. Who received the Nobel Prize for the yellow fever vaccine?
Max Theiler in 1951.
1276. Who discovered the insecticide DDT?
Paul Hermann Müller.
1277. Who received the Nobel Prize for DDT?
Paul Hermann Müller in 1948.
1278. Who discovered streptomycin?
Selman Waksman.
1279. Who received the Nobel Prize for streptomycin?
Selman Waksman in 1952.
1280. Who discovered the structure of penicillin?
Dorothy Hodgkin (X-ray crystallography) and earlier chemical work by others.
1281. Who determined the structure of vitamin B12?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1282. Who received the Nobel Prize for X-ray crystallography of biochemical substances?
Dorothy Hodgkin in 1964.
1283. Who discovered the structure of haemoglobin?
Max Perutz.
1284. Who discovered the structure of myoglobin?
John Kendrew.
1285. Who received the Nobel Prize for the structures of haemoglobin and myoglobin?
Max Perutz and John Kendrew in 1962.
1286. Who discovered nerve growth factor?
Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen.
1287. Who received the Nobel Prize for growth factors?
Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen in 1986.
1288. Who discovered epidermal growth factor?
Stanley Cohen.
1289. Who discovered the role of telomeres and telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak.
1290. Who received the Nobel Prize for telomeres and telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak in 2009.
1291. Who discovered RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello.
1292. Who received the Nobel Prize for RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello in 2006.
1293. Who discovered microRNA?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun.
1294. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of microRNA?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun in 2024.
1295. Who developed the first successful mRNA vaccines?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman (foundational work) with BioNTech and Moderna teams.
1296. Who received the Nobel Prize for mRNA vaccine technology?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman in 2023.
1297. Who discovered the first exoplanet around a normal star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.
1298. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of exoplanets?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz in 2019.
1299. Who provided evidence for a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel.
1300. Who received the Nobel Prize for the supermassive black hole at the galactic centre?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel in 2020 (shared with Roger Penrose).
1301. Who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin.
1302. Who wrote the book “The Descent of Man”?
Charles Darwin.
1303. Who independently proposed the theory of natural selection around the same time as Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace.
1304. Who is known as the Father of Modern Geology?
James Hutton.
1305. Who proposed the principle of uniformitarianism in geology?
James Hutton.
1306. Who wrote “Principles of Geology”?
Charles Lyell.
1307. Who influenced Charles Darwin with his ideas on gradual geological change?
Charles Lyell.
1308. Who proposed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system?
Pierre-Simon Laplace (and earlier Immanuel Kant).
1309. Who calculated the density of the Earth?
Henry Cavendish.
1310. Who discovered hydrogen gas?
Henry Cavendish.
1311. Who discovered oxygen independently of Priestley?
Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
1312. Who is credited with the discovery of oxygen in most textbooks?
Joseph Priestley.
1313. Who named oxygen and explained its role in combustion?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1314. Who discovered nitrogen?
Daniel Rutherford.
1315. Who discovered chlorine?
Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
1316. Who discovered the noble gas argon?
Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay.
1317. Who discovered helium on Earth?
William Ramsay.
1318. Who discovered neon, krypton and xenon?
William Ramsay.
1319. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of noble gases?
William Ramsay in 1904.
1320. Who discovered the electron through cathode ray experiments?
J.J. Thomson.
1321. Who measured the charge of the electron?
Robert Millikan (oil-drop experiment).
1322. Who performed the oil-drop experiment?
Robert Millikan.
1323. Who discovered the proton as a particle?
Ernest Rutherford.
1324. Who proposed the existence of isotopes?
Frederick Soddy.
1325. Who coined the term “isotope”?
Frederick Soddy.
1326. Who discovered nuclear fission?
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
1327. Who provided the theoretical explanation of nuclear fission?
Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.
1328. Who is known as the mother of nuclear fission?
Lise Meitner (though she did not receive the Nobel Prize).
1329. Who led the Manhattan Project’s scientific team?
J. Robert Oppenheimer.
1330. Who is known as the Father of the Atomic Bomb?
J. Robert Oppenheimer.
1331. Who built the first nuclear reactor?
Enrico Fermi.
1332. Who is known as the architect of the nuclear age?
Enrico Fermi.
1333. Who discovered the neutrino theoretically?
Wolfgang Pauli.
1334. Who experimentally detected the neutrino?
Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines.
1335. Who received the Nobel Prize for the detection of the neutrino?
Frederick Reines in 1995.
1336. Who proposed the existence of the neutrino to explain beta decay?
Wolfgang Pauli in 1930.
1337. Who developed the first cyclotron?
Ernest Lawrence.
1338. Who received the Nobel Prize for the cyclotron?
Ernest Lawrence in 1939.
1339. Who discovered the muon?
Carl Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer.
1340. Who discovered the positron?
Carl Anderson.
1341. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the positron?
Carl Anderson in 1936.
1342. Who proposed the eightfold way for classifying particles?
Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne’eman.
1343. Who received the Nobel Prize for the classification of elementary particles?
Murray Gell-Mann in 1969.
1344. Who discovered the J/psi particle?
Burton Richter and Samuel Ting independently.
1345. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the J/psi particle?
Burton Richter and Samuel Ting in 1976.
1346. Who discovered the bottom quark?
Leon Lederman and his team.
1347. Who discovered the top quark?
Scientists at Fermilab in 1995.
1348. Who proposed asymptotic freedom in quantum chromodynamics?
David Gross, Frank Wilczek and David Politzer.
1349. Who received the Nobel Prize for asymptotic freedom?
David Gross, Frank Wilczek and David Politzer in 2004.
1350. Who discovered the gluon?
Experiments at the PETRA collider at DESY in 1979.
1351. Who proposed the electroweak theory?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg.
1352. Who received the Nobel Prize for the electroweak theory?
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg in 1979.
1353. Who was the first Pakistani scientist to receive a Nobel Prize?
Abdus Salam.
1354. Who discovered neutrino oscillation?
Takaaki Kajita and Arthur McDonald (through Super-Kamiokande and SNO experiments).
1355. Who received the Nobel Prize for neutrino oscillation?
Takaaki Kajita and Arthur McDonald in 2015.
1356. Who proposed that neutrinos have mass?
Bruno Pontecorvo (theoretical ideas) later confirmed by experiments.
1357. Who developed the first successful nuclear magnetic resonance method?
Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell.
1358. Who received the Nobel Prize for nuclear magnetic resonance?
Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell in 1952.
1359. Who developed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?
Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield.
1360. Who received the Nobel Prize for MRI?
Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield in 2003.
1361. Who invented the computed tomography (CT) scanner?
Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack.
1362. Who received the Nobel Prize for the CT scanner?
Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack in 1979.
1363. Who performed the first successful human heart transplant?
Christiaan Barnard in 1967.
1364. Who developed the first artificial kidney (dialysis machine)?
Willem Kolff.
1365. Who is known as the Father of Artificial Organs?
Willem Kolff.
1366. Who developed the first implantable pacemaker?
Rune Elmqvist and Åke Senning.
1367. Who performed the first successful coronary artery bypass surgery?
René Favaloro.
1368. Who developed balloon angioplasty?
Andreas Grüntzig.
1369. Who discovered the role of cholesterol in atherosclerosis?
Nikolai Anitschkow (early work) and later researchers.
1370. Who discovered the LDL receptor?
Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein.
1371. Who received the Nobel Prize for cholesterol metabolism?
Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein in 1985.
1372. Who discovered the first statin drug?
Akira Endo.
1373. Who developed the first successful vaccine for hepatitis B?
Baruch Blumberg and later Maurice Hilleman.
1374. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of hepatitis B virus?
Baruch Blumberg in 1976.
1375. Who discovered the hepatitis C virus?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice.
1376. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of hepatitis C?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice in 2020.
1377. Who discovered Helicobacter pylori as the cause of peptic ulcers?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren.
1378. Who received the Nobel Prize for Helicobacter pylori?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren in 2005.
1379. Who discovered the link between HPV and cervical cancer?
Harald zur Hausen.
1380. Who received the Nobel Prize for HPV and cancer?
Harald zur Hausen in 2008.
1381. Who developed the first HPV vaccine?
Ian Frazer and Jian Zhou (technology) later commercialised by companies.
1382. Who discovered the Epstein-Barr virus?
Michael Epstein and Yvonne Barr.
1383. Who developed the first successful cancer immunotherapy using checkpoint inhibitors?
James Allison and Tasuku Honjo.
1384. Who received the Nobel Prize for cancer immunotherapy?
James Allison and Tasuku Honjo in 2018.
1385. Who discovered PD-1?
Tasuku Honjo.
1386. Who discovered CTLA-4 as an immune checkpoint?
James Allison and other researchers.
1387. Who developed the first successful CAR-T cell therapy?
Carl June and his team.
1388. Who discovered the Philadelphia chromosome?
Peter Nowell and David Hungerford.
1389. Who developed the first targeted cancer therapy imatinib (Gleevec)?
Brian Druker, Nicholas Lydon and Charles Sawyers.
1390. Who discovered the BRCA1 gene?
Mary-Claire King (linkage) and later cloning teams.
1391. Who discovered the role of telomerase in cancer cells?
Researchers following the work of Blackburn and Greider.
1392. Who developed the first successful treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children?
Sidney Farber and later many oncologists.
1393. Who is known as the Father of Modern Chemotherapy?
Sidney Farber.
1394. Who discovered the first effective antiviral drug acyclovir?
Gertrude Elion and George Hitchings.
1395. Who received the Nobel Prize for important drug discoveries including acyclovir?
Gertrude Elion, George Hitchings and James Black in 1988.
1396. Who developed the first beta-blocker?
James Black.
1397. Who developed the first H2-receptor antagonist for ulcers?
James Black.
1398. Who discovered the first successful treatment for Parkinson’s disease using L-DOPA?
George Cotzias.
1399. Who discovered the role of dopamine in the brain?
Arvid Carlsson.
1400. Who received the Nobel Prize for work on dopamine and signal transduction in the nervous system?
Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard and Eric Kandel in 2000.
1401. Who discovered the first vitamin?
Christiaan Eijkman (thiamine) and Casimir Funk (who coined the term vitamin).
1402. Who isolated vitamin C?
Albert Szent-Györgyi.
1403. Who received the Nobel Prize for vitamin C and related work?
Albert Szent-Györgyi in 1937.
1404. Who discovered the role of vitamin D in preventing rickets?
Edward Mellanby and Elmer McCollum.
1405. Who discovered vitamin A?
Elmer McCollum.
1406. Who discovered vitamin K?
Henrik Dam.
1407. Who received the Nobel Prize for vitamin K?
Henrik Dam and Edward Doisy in 1943.
1408. Who discovered the first hormone?
William Bayliss and Ernest Starling (secretin).
1409. Who coined the term “hormone”?
Ernest Starling.
1410. Who isolated adrenaline (epinephrine)?
Jokichi Takamine.
1411. Who determined the structure of insulin?
Frederick Sanger.
1412. Who received the Nobel Prize for the structure of insulin?
Frederick Sanger in 1958.
1413. Who developed radioimmunoassay?
Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson.
1414. Who received the Nobel Prize for radioimmunoassay?
Rosalyn Yalow in 1977.
1415. Who determined the structures of oxytocin and vasopressin?
Vincent du Vigneaud.
1416. Who received the Nobel Prize for peptide hormone synthesis?
Vincent du Vigneaud in 1955.
1417. Who discovered hypothalamic releasing hormones?
Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally.
1418. Who received the Nobel Prize for hypothalamic hormones?
Roger Guillemin, Andrew Schally and Rosalyn Yalow in 1977.
1419. Who discovered prostaglandins?
Ulf von Euler.
1420. Who determined the structures of prostaglandins?
Sune Bergström and Bengt Samuelsson.
1421. Who received the Nobel Prize for prostaglandins?
Sune Bergström, Bengt Samuelsson and John Vane in 1982.
1422. Who discovered that aspirin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis?
John Vane.
1423. Who discovered interferon?
Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann.
1424. Who discovered dendritic cells?
Ralph Steinman.
1425. Who received the Nobel Prize for dendritic cells and innate immunity?
Ralph Steinman, Bruce Beutler and Jules Hoffmann in 2011.
1426. Who discovered Toll-like receptors?
Jules Hoffmann and Bruce Beutler.
1427. Who discovered the first tumour virus?
Peyton Rous.
1428. Who received the Nobel Prize for tumour-inducing viruses?
Peyton Rous in 1966.
1429. Who proposed the two-hit hypothesis for cancer?
Alfred Knudson.
1430. Who discovered the p53 tumour-suppressor gene?
Several research groups including those led by David Lane and Arnold Levine.
1431. Who developed the first successful monoclonal antibody drug?
Researchers building on the work of Köhler and Milstein.
1432. Who discovered the T-cell receptor?
Tak Mak and Mark Davis.
1433. Who discovered the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)?
George Snell, Jean Dausset and Baruj Benacerraf.
1434. Who received the Nobel Prize for the MHC system?
George Snell, Jean Dausset and Baruj Benacerraf in 1980.
1435. Who proposed the clonal selection theory?
Frank Macfarlane Burnet.
1436. Who discovered the structure of antibodies?
Gerald Edelman and Rodney Porter.
1437. Who received the Nobel Prize for antibody structure?
Gerald Edelman and Rodney Porter in 1972.
1438. Who performed the first successful organ transplant (kidney)?
Joseph Murray in 1954.
1439. Who received the Nobel Prize for organ transplantation?
Joseph Murray and E. Donnall Thomas in 1990.
1440. Who developed bone-marrow transplantation?
E. Donnall Thomas.
1441. Who discovered cyclosporine?
Jean-François Borel and researchers at Sandoz.
1442. Who developed the first successful artificial heart for temporary use?
Willem Kolff and later Robert Jarvik.
1443. Who invented the first implantable cardioverter-defibrillator?
Michel Mirowski.
1444. Who discovered the role of the immune system in cancer surveillance?
Many researchers including those who developed modern immunotherapy.
1445. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for a genetic disease?
Researchers who treated ADA-SCID and later other conditions.
1446. Who developed the first successful CRISPR-based therapy approved for clinical use?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex Pharmaceuticals.
1447. Who pioneered base editing technology?
David Liu.
1448. Who pioneered prime editing technology?
David Liu and Andrew Anzalone.
1449. Who discovered the CRISPR system in bacteria?
Francisco Mojica.
1450. Who first applied CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing in human cells?
Feng Zhang and independently George Church’s group.
1451. Who developed the first successful treatment for spinal muscular atrophy using gene therapy?
Researchers at AveXis/Novartis.
1452. Who developed the first successful antisense therapy for spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers at Ionis Pharmaceuticals and Biogen.
1453. Who discovered the genetic cause of Huntington’s disease?
The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group.
1454. Who mapped the Huntington’s disease gene?
James Gusella and colleagues.
1455. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystic fibrosis?
Francis Collins, Lap-Chee Tsui and John Riordan.
1456. Who developed the first CFTR modulator therapies?
Researchers at Vertex Pharmaceuticals.
1457. Who discovered the genetic cause of sickle cell disease at the molecular level?
Linus Pauling.
1458. Who first described sickle cell anaemia as a molecular disease?
Linus Pauling in 1949.
1459. Who developed the first successful CRISPR therapy for sickle cell disease?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex.
1460. Who developed the first successful lentiviral gene therapy for beta-thalassemia?
Researchers at bluebird bio.
1461. Who discovered the genetic cause of Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Louis Kunkel and colleagues.
1462. Who developed the first exon-skipping therapies for Duchenne muscular dystrophy?
Researchers at Sarepta Therapeutics and other companies.
1463. Who discovered the genetic cause of spinal muscular atrophy?
Researchers who identified SMN1 gene mutations.
1464. Who developed the first small-molecule splicing modifier for SMA?
Researchers at PTC Therapeutics and Roche.
1465. Who discovered the genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in some families?
Researchers who identified SOD1 mutations.
1466. Who developed the first antisense therapy for SOD1-ALS?
Researchers at Ionis and Biogen.
1467. Who discovered the C9orf72 repeat expansion in ALS and FTD?
Researchers in 2011.
1468. Who discovered the genetic causes of familial Alzheimer’s disease?
Researchers who identified APP, PSEN1 and PSEN2 mutations.
1469. Who proposed the amyloid cascade hypothesis?
John Hardy and colleagues.
1470. Who developed the first anti-amyloid antibodies for Alzheimer’s disease?
Researchers at Biogen, Eisai and Eli Lilly.
1471. Who discovered the APOE4 risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease?
Allen Roses and colleagues.
1472. Who discovered the orexin system related to narcolepsy?
Researchers who identified orexin/hypocretin deficiency.
1473. Who developed the first dual orexin receptor antagonists for insomnia?
Researchers at Merck and other companies.
1474. Who developed deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease?
Alim-Louis Benabid and colleagues.
1475. Who developed the first successful triptan drugs for migraine?
Researchers at Glaxo.
1476. Who discovered the role of CGRP in migraine?
Lars Edvinsson and other researchers.
1477. Who developed the first CGRP monoclonal antibodies for migraine?
Researchers at Amgen, Novartis, Teva and Eli Lilly.
1478. Who developed the first successful treatment for myasthenia gravis using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors?
Mary Walker.
1479. Who discovered the autoimmune nature of myasthenia gravis?
Researchers who identified acetylcholine receptor antibodies.
1480. Who developed the first complement inhibitor for myasthenia gravis?
Researchers at Alexion.
1481. Who developed the first FcRn inhibitor for myasthenia gravis?
Researchers at argenx.
1482. Who discovered NMDA receptor antibody encephalitis?
Josep Dalmau and colleagues.
1483. Who developed the first successful TNF inhibitors for rheumatoid arthritis?
Researchers at Centocor and Immunex.
1484. Who developed the first JAK inhibitor for rheumatoid arthritis?
Researchers at Pfizer.
1485. Who discovered the JAK-STAT pathway?
Researchers who characterised Janus kinases and signal transducers.
1486. Who developed the first IL-17 inhibitors for psoriasis?
Researchers at Novartis and other companies.
1487. Who developed the first IL-23 inhibitors for psoriasis?
Researchers at Janssen and other companies.
1488. Who discovered the strong association of HLA-B27 with ankylosing spondylitis?
Researchers in the 1970s.
1489. Who developed the first successful treatment for gout using allopurinol?
Researchers who developed the xanthine oxidase inhibitor.
1490. Who developed the first bisphosphonates for osteoporosis?
Researchers who established alendronate and related drugs.
1491. Who discovered the RANKL pathway in bone metabolism?
Researchers who characterised RANK, RANKL and OPG.
1492. Who developed the first RANKL inhibitor for osteoporosis?
Researchers at Amgen (denosumab).
1493. Who developed the first sclerostin inhibitor for osteoporosis?
Researchers at Amgen and UCB (romosozumab).
1494. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Gaucher disease?
Researchers at Genzyme.
1495. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in Gaucher disease?
Roscoe Brady and colleagues.
1496. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Fabry disease?
Researchers at Genzyme and Shire.
1497. Who developed the first successful enzyme replacement therapy for Pompe disease?
Researchers at Genzyme.
1498. Who discovered the enzyme deficiency in Pompe disease?
Henri-Géry Hers.
1499. Who developed the first successful treatment for cystinosis using cysteamine?
Researchers who established cysteamine therapy.
1500. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystinosis?
Researchers who identified mutations in the CTNS gene.
1501. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Green Revolution?
M.S. Swaminathan.
1502. Who developed high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice for India?
M.S. Swaminathan (in collaboration with Norman Borlaug’s work).
1503. Who was the first Indian scientist to receive the World Food Prize?
M.S. Swaminathan.
1504. Who discovered the Raman Effect?
C.V. Raman.
1505. In which year did C.V. Raman receive the Nobel Prize?
1930.
1506. Who was the first Asian to receive a Nobel Prize in Science?
C.V. Raman.
1507. Who founded the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) vision along with J.N. Tata?
The idea was supported by scientists including those who shaped early Indian science policy.
1508. Who is known as the Father of Indian Nuclear Programme?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1509. Who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1510. Who is known as the Missile Man of India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1511. Who was the scientific advisor to the Government of India and later became President?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1512. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Space Programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1513. Who founded the Physical Research Laboratory in Ahmedabad?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1514. Who was the first Chairman of ISRO?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1515. Who discovered the Saha Ionisation Equation used in astrophysics?
Meghnad Saha.
1516. Who is known for Bose-Einstein statistics and Bose-Einstein condensate?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1517. Who calculated the maximum mass of a white dwarf star?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1518. What is the Chandrasekhar Limit?
About 1.4 solar masses.
1519. Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for studies on the structure and evolution of stars?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1520. Who is known as the Father of Indian Chemistry?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1521. Who founded Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1522. Who is known for research on radio waves and plant physiology in India?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1523. Who invented the crescograph?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1524. Who was a pioneering Indian woman scientist in cytogenetics?
Janaki Ammal.
1525. Who worked on the cytogenetics of sugarcane and eggplant in India?
Janaki Ammal.
1526. Who was the first Indian woman to get a PhD in science abroad?
Janaki Ammal (University of Michigan).
1527. Who discovered the process of photosynthesis’s light and dark reactions in detail?
Melvin Calvin (Calvin cycle).
1528. Who received the Nobel Prize for the Calvin cycle?
Melvin Calvin in 1961.
1529. Who proposed the chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis?
Peter Mitchell.
1530. Who received the Nobel Prize for the chemiosmotic theory?
Peter Mitchell in 1978.
1531. Who discovered the structure of vitamin B12?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1532. Who determined the structure of penicillin using X-ray crystallography?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1533. Who was the first British woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Science?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1534. Who discovered the first noble gas compounds?
Neil Bartlett.
1535. Who proposed the concept of hybridisation in chemical bonding?
Linus Pauling.
1536. Who wrote “The Nature of the Chemical Bond”?
Linus Pauling.
1537. Who received two unshared Nobel Prizes (Chemistry and Peace)?
Linus Pauling.
1538. Who discovered the alpha-helix structure of proteins?
Linus Pauling.
1539. Who proposed the valence bond theory?
Linus Pauling and others.
1540. Who developed the molecular orbital theory?
Friedrich Hund, Robert Mulliken and others.
1541. Who received the Nobel Prize for molecular orbital theory?
Robert Mulliken in 1966.
1542. Who discovered the first inert gas compound (xenon hexafluoroplatinate)?
Neil Bartlett.
1543. Who proposed the VSEPR theory?
Ronald Gillespie and Ronald Nyholm.
1544. Who developed the crystal field theory?
Hans Bethe and John Van Vleck.
1545. Who received the Nobel Prize for crystal field theory and magnetism?
John Van Vleck in 1977.
1546. Who discovered the first fullerenes (buckyballs)?
Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley and Robert Curl.
1547. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of fullerenes?
Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley and Robert Curl in 1996.
1548. Who discovered graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.
1549. Who received the Nobel Prize for graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov in 2010.
1550. Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
1551. Who invented the atomic force microscope?
Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber.
1552. Who received the Nobel Prize for the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in 1986.
1553. Who invented the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska.
1554. Who received the Nobel Prize for the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska in 1986.
1555. Who discovered the first quasicrystals?
Dan Shechtman.
1556. Who received the Nobel Prize for quasicrystals?
Dan Shechtman in 2011.
1557. Who developed the density functional theory?
Walter Kohn and Pierre Hohenberg (and later Lu Jeu Sham).
1558. Who received the Nobel Prize for density functional theory?
Walter Kohn in 1998.
1559. Who developed computational methods in quantum chemistry?
John Pople.
1560. Who received the Nobel Prize for computational chemistry methods?
John Pople in 1998.
1561. Who discovered the first superconducting materials at higher temperatures (cuprates)?
J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller.
1562. Who received the Nobel Prize for high-temperature superconductivity?
J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller in 1987.
1563. Who developed the BCS theory of superconductivity?
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer.
1564. Who received the Nobel Prize for the BCS theory?
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer in 1972.
1565. Who is the only person to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics twice?
John Bardeen.
1566. Who invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley.
1567. Who received the Nobel Prize for the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1956.
1568. Who invented the laser?
Theodore Maiman (first working laser).
1569. Who developed the theoretical foundation for the laser and maser?
Charles Townes, Arthur Schawlow, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov.
1570. Who received the Nobel Prize for the maser-laser principle?
Charles Townes, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov in 1964.
1571. Who discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
1572. Who received the Nobel Prize for cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1978.
1573. Who proposed the inflationary model of the universe?
Alan Guth.
1574. Who discovered pulsars?
Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish.
1575. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of pulsars?
Antony Hewish in 1974 (Jocelyn Bell Burnell was not included).
1576. Who provided strong evidence for dark matter through galaxy rotation curves?
Vera Rubin.
1577. Who proposed the existence of dark matter?
Fritz Zwicky.
1578. Who discovered the accelerating expansion of the universe?
Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess.
1579. Who received the Nobel Prize for the accelerating universe?
Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess in 2011.
1580. Who predicted gravitational waves?
Albert Einstein.
1581. Who detected gravitational waves for the first time?
The LIGO Scientific Collaboration in 2015.
1582. Who received the Nobel Prize for the detection of gravitational waves?
Rainer Weiss, Barry Barish and Kip Thorne in 2017.
1583. Who developed the mathematical theory of black holes and singularities?
Roger Penrose.
1584. Who received the Nobel Prize for black hole formation theory?
Roger Penrose in 2020.
1585. Who provided observational evidence for the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel.
1586. Who received the Nobel Prize for the galactic centre black hole?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel in 2020.
1587. Who predicted Hawking radiation?
Stephen Hawking.
1588. Who wrote the famous book “A Brief History of Time”?
Stephen Hawking.
1589. Who discovered the first exoplanet orbiting a sun-like star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.
1590. Who received the Nobel Prize for exoplanet discovery?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz in 2019.
1591. Who developed the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1592. Who received the Nobel Prize for CRISPR-Cas9?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier in 2020.
1593. Who discovered artemisinin?
Tu Youyou.
1594. Who received the Nobel Prize for artemisinin?
Tu Youyou in 2015.
1595. Who is known as the Father of Hybrid Rice?
Yuan Longping.
1596. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee.
1597. Who is regarded as the first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
1598. Who proposed the Turing Test for machine intelligence?
Alan Turing.
1599. Who is known as the Father of the Computer for designing the Analytical Engine?
Charles Babbage.
1600. Who developed the concept of the stored-program computer?
John von Neumann (and earlier theoretical work by others).
1601. Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine?
Gerty Cori (1947, shared with Carl Cori and Bernardo Houssay).
1602. Who discovered the catalytic conversion of glycogen?
Carl and Gerty Cori.
1603. Who was the first woman to receive an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine?
Barbara McClintock (1983) for the discovery of mobile genetic elements (transposons).
1604. Who discovered jumping genes or transposons?
Barbara McClintock.
1605. Who was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry after Marie Curie?
Irène Joliot-Curie (1935, shared with Frédéric Joliot-Curie).
1606. Who discovered artificial radioactivity?
Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot-Curie.
1607. Who was the first Israeli woman to win a Nobel Prize in Science?
Ada Yonath (2009, Chemistry) for ribosome structure.
1608. Who was the first Chinese woman to win a Nobel Prize in Science?
Tu Youyou (2015, Physiology or Medicine).
1609. Who was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physics after Marie Curie?
Maria Goeppert Mayer (1963) for the nuclear shell model.
1610. Who proposed the nuclear shell model along with J. Hans D. Jensen?
Maria Goeppert Mayer.
1611. Who was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Economics (related to science policy sometimes)?
Elinor Ostrom (2009), though not a natural scientist.
1612. Who discovered the first evidence of dark matter through galaxy rotation curves?
Vera Rubin.
1613. Who was a pioneering woman astronomer who classified stars and discovered the period-luminosity relation of Cepheids?
Henrietta Swan Leavitt.
1614. Who calculated the size of the Milky Way and the distance to the Magellanic Clouds using Cepheid variables?
Henrietta Swan Leavitt’s work enabled later measurements by Hubble.
1615. Who was the first American woman in space?
Sally Ride (1983).
1616. Who was the first woman to walk in space?
Svetlana Savitskaya (1984).
1617. Who was the first Indian woman in space?
Kalpana Chawla.
1618. Who was the second Indian woman in space?
Sunita Williams.
1619. Who is the first woman of Indian origin to go to space after Kalpana Chawla and Sunita Williams in recent missions?
Several, including those in private missions; classic reference remains Kalpana Chawla.
1620. Who discovered the first pulsar?
Jocelyn Bell Burnell.
1621. Who was overlooked for the Nobel Prize despite discovering pulsars?
Jocelyn Bell Burnell (Nobel went to her supervisor Antony Hewish).
1622. Who developed the first compiler for computer programming?
Grace Hopper.
1623. Who is known as the Mother of COBOL?
Grace Hopper.
1624. Who coined the term “debugging” in computing?
Grace Hopper (popularised after finding a moth in a computer).
1625. Who was a pioneering woman mathematician who contributed to the theory of elasticity and number theory?
Sofia Kovalevskaya.
1626. Who was the first woman to receive a doctorate in mathematics in modern Europe?
Sofia Kovalevskaya.
1627. Who contributed to abstract algebra and Noether’s theorem in physics?
Emmy Noether.
1628. What does Noether’s theorem state?
Every continuous symmetry of a physical system corresponds to a conservation law.
1629. Who was a pioneering woman crystallographer who determined the structure of penicillin and vitamin B12?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1630. Who determined the structure of insulin by X-ray crystallography?
Dorothy Hodgkin.
1631. Who was the first British woman to win a Nobel Prize in Science?
Dorothy Hodgkin (1964).
1632. Who discovered the structure of DNA’s helical nature through X-ray diffraction?
Rosalind Franklin (Photo 51).
1633. Who was a key contributor to the DNA double-helix discovery but did not receive the Nobel Prize?
Rosalind Franklin (Nobel awarded to Watson, Crick and Wilkins in 1962 after her death).
1634. Who co-discovered nuclear fission but was not awarded the Nobel Prize?
Lise Meitner.
1635. Who provided the first theoretical explanation of nuclear fission?
Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.
1636. Who was a pioneering woman physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and later nuclear policy?
Leona Woods (among others).
1637. Who discovered the element francium?
Marguerite Perey.
1638. Who was a student of Marie Curie and discovered francium?
Marguerite Perey.
1639. Who was the first woman to be elected to the French Academy of Sciences?
Marguerite Perey (as a corresponding member).
1640. Who developed the first successful treatment for leprosy using chaulmoogra oil and later modern drugs?
Early work by many; modern multi-drug therapy developed through WHO and researchers.
1641. Who discovered the leprosy bacillus?
Gerhard Armauer Hansen.
1642. Who developed the BCG vaccine for tuberculosis?
Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin.
1643. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacterium?
Robert Koch.
1644. Who developed the first successful vaccine for yellow fever?
Max Theiler.
1645. Who discovered the transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes?
Walter Reed and colleagues (building on Carlos Finlay’s work).
1646. Who proposed that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever?
Carlos Finlay.
1647. Who discovered the cause of sickle cell anaemia as a molecular disease?
Linus Pauling.
1648. Who first showed that sickle cell anaemia is caused by a change in haemoglobin?
Linus Pauling in 1949.
1649. Who developed the first successful gene therapy for sickle cell disease using CRISPR?
Researchers at CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex Pharmaceuticals.
1650. Who developed the first successful lentiviral gene therapy for sickle cell and thalassemia?
Researchers at bluebird bio.
1651. Who discovered the genetic basis of Huntington’s disease?
The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group.
1652. Who mapped the gene for Huntington’s disease to chromosome 4?
James Gusella and colleagues.
1653. Who discovered the genetic cause of cystic fibrosis?
Francis Collins, Lap-Chee Tsui and John Riordan.
1654. Who developed the first CFTR modulator drugs?
Researchers at Vertex Pharmaceuticals.
1655. Who discovered the BRCA1 gene linked to breast and ovarian cancer?
Mary-Claire King (genetic linkage) and later cloning by multiple teams.
1656. Who discovered the BRCA2 gene?
Researchers including Michael Stratton’s group.
1657. Who developed the first PARP inhibitors for BRCA-mutated cancers?
Researchers who translated synthetic lethality into drugs such as olaparib.
1658. Who proposed the concept of synthetic lethality in cancer therapy?
Researchers including Alan Ashworth and Thomas Helleday.
1659. Who developed the first successful checkpoint inhibitor for cancer?
James Allison (CTLA-4) and later Tasuku Honjo (PD-1).
1660. Who received the Nobel Prize for cancer immunotherapy?
James Allison and Tasuku Honjo in 2018.
1661. Who developed the first CAR-T cell therapy approved for cancer?
Carl June and teams at the University of Pennsylvania and Novartis.
1662. Who discovered the Philadelphia chromosome in chronic myeloid leukaemia?
Peter Nowell and David Hungerford.
1663. Who developed the targeted drug imatinib (Gleevec) for CML?
Brian Druker, Nicholas Lydon and Charles Sawyers.
1664. Who discovered the role of Helicobacter pylori in peptic ulcers?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren.
1665. Who received the Nobel Prize for Helicobacter pylori?
Barry Marshall and Robin Warren in 2005.
1666. Who discovered the link between HPV and cervical cancer?
Harald zur Hausen.
1667. Who received the Nobel Prize for HPV research?
Harald zur Hausen in 2008.
1668. Who developed the first HPV vaccines?
Ian Frazer, Jian Zhou and later commercial teams at Merck and GSK.
1669. Who discovered the hepatitis B virus?
Baruch Blumberg.
1670. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of hepatitis B virus?
Baruch Blumberg in 1976.
1671. Who discovered the hepatitis C virus?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice.
1672. Who received the Nobel Prize for hepatitis C discovery?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice in 2020.
1673. Who developed the first successful mRNA vaccine technology?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman.
1674. Who received the Nobel Prize for mRNA vaccine technology?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman in 2023.
1675. Who developed the first COVID-19 mRNA vaccines?
Teams at BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna building on Karikó and Weissman’s work.
1676. Who discovered the CRISPR adaptive immune system in bacteria?
Francisco Mojica.
1677. Who developed CRISPR-Cas9 into a gene-editing tool?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1678. Who first demonstrated CRISPR editing in human cells?
Feng Zhang and independently George Church’s laboratory.
1679. Who pioneered base editing and prime editing?
David Liu.
1680. Who discovered microRNAs?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun.
1681. Who received the Nobel Prize for microRNA discovery?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun in 2024.
1682. Who discovered RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello.
1683. Who received the Nobel Prize for RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello in 2006.
1684. Who discovered telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn and Carol Greider.
1685. Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of telomeres and telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider and Jack Szostak in 2009.
1686. Who discovered the first tumour-suppressor gene (Rb)?
Researchers who cloned the retinoblastoma gene following Knudson’s hypothesis.
1687. Who proposed the two-hit hypothesis for tumour-suppressor genes?
Alfred Knudson.
1688. Who discovered the first human oncogene?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop.
1689. Who received the Nobel Prize for cellular oncogenes?
Harold Varmus and J. Michael Bishop in 1989.
1690. Who discovered reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin and David Baltimore.
1691. Who received the Nobel Prize for reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin, David Baltimore and Renato Dulbecco in 1975.
1692. Who proposed the central dogma of molecular biology?
Francis Crick.
1693. Who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick.
1694. Who provided the X-ray data critical for the DNA structure?
Rosalind Franklin.
1695. Who developed the first method for sequencing DNA?
Frederick Sanger.
1696. Who received two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry?
Frederick Sanger (1958 and 1980).
1697. Who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Kary Mullis.
1698. Who received the Nobel Prize for PCR?
Kary Mullis in 1993.
1699. Who developed recombinant DNA technology?
Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen.
1700. Who is widely regarded as one of the founders of modern biotechnology?
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen (for recombinant DNA), along with many others.
1701. Who discovered the Raman Effect and became the first Asian to win a Nobel Prize in Science?
C.V. Raman (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1930).
1702. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Space Programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1703. Who proposed the Special and General Theories of Relativity?
Albert Einstein.
1704. Who is known as the Missile Man of India and also served as the 11th President of India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1705. Who discovered the structure of DNA along with Francis Crick?
James Watson.
1706. Who provided the critical X-ray diffraction image (Photo 51) that helped reveal the structure of DNA?
Rosalind Franklin.
1707. Who founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and is known as the Father of India’s Nuclear Programme?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1708. Who formulated the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation?
Isaac Newton.
1709. Who discovered the Bose-Einstein statistics and after whom bosons are named?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1710. Who calculated the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star (Chandrasekhar Limit)?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1711. Who is known as the Father of Modern Chemistry for his work on combustion and the law of conservation of mass?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1712. Who discovered radioactivity?
Henri Becquerel.
1713. Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields?
Marie Curie.
1714. Who discovered the elements polonium and radium?
Marie Curie and Pierre Curie.
1715. Who developed the periodic table of elements?
Dmitri Mendeleev.
1716. Who is known as the Father of Indian Chemistry and founded Bengal Chemicals?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1717. Who demonstrated that plants respond to stimuli and invented the crescograph?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1718. Who discovered penicillin?
Alexander Fleming.
1719. Who developed the first successful vaccine for smallpox?
Edward Jenner.
1720. Who is known as the Father of the Green Revolution in India?
M.S. Swaminathan.
1721. Who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin.
1722. Who independently arrived at the idea of natural selection around the same time as Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace.
1723. Who is known as the Father of Genetics?
Gregor Mendel.
1724. Who discovered the electron?
J.J. Thomson.
1725. Who performed the gold-foil experiment and discovered the atomic nucleus?
Ernest Rutherford.
1726. Who proposed the Bohr model of the atom?
Niels Bohr.
1727. Who discovered the neutron?
James Chadwick.
1728. Who formulated the uncertainty principle?
Werner Heisenberg.
1729. Who developed the wave equation of quantum mechanics?
Erwin Schrödinger.
1730. Who predicted the existence of antimatter?
Paul Dirac.
1731. Who is known for the Saha Ionisation Equation used in stellar astrophysics?
Meghnad Saha.
1732. Who discovered the expansion of the universe?
Edwin Hubble.
1733. Who proposed the Big Bang theory?
Georges Lemaître.
1734. Who predicted that black holes emit radiation?
Stephen Hawking.
1735. Who wrote the famous book “A Brief History of Time”?
Stephen Hawking.
1736. Who discovered the first exoplanet around a sun-like star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.
1737. Who developed CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1738. Who discovered artemisinin, a key antimalarial drug?
Tu Youyou.
1739. Who is known as the Father of Hybrid Rice?
Yuan Longping.
1740. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee.
1741. Who is considered the first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
1742. Who proposed the Turing Test?
Alan Turing.
1743. Who designed the Analytical Engine and is known as the Father of the Computer?
Charles Babbage.
1744. Who discovered X-rays?
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen.
1745. Who discovered electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
1746. Who formulated the four equations that unify electricity, magnetism and light?
James Clerk Maxwell.
1747. Who invented the electric battery?
Alessandro Volta.
1748. Who developed the first successful polio vaccine?
Jonas Salk.
1749. Who developed the oral polio vaccine?
Albert Sabin.
1750. Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting and Charles Best.
1751. Who discovered the ABO blood group system?
Karl Landsteiner.
1752. Who is known for pioneering work on plant cytology and sugarcane genetics in India?
Janaki Ammal.
1753. Who was the first Indian woman to receive a PhD in a scientific discipline?
Janaki Ammal.
1754. Who discovered the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953?
James Watson and Francis Crick.
1755. Who developed the first method to sequence DNA?
Frederick Sanger.
1756. Who invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)?
Kary Mullis.
1757. Who discovered reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin and David Baltimore.
1758. Who proposed the central dogma of molecular biology?
Francis Crick.
1759. Who developed recombinant DNA technology?
Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen.
1760. Who discovered restriction enzymes?
Werner Arber, Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans.
1761. Who created the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep?
Ian Wilmut and his team.
1762. Who developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)?
Shinya Yamanaka.
1763. Who discovered the structure of the ribosome at high resolution?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath.
1764. Who was the first Indian-origin scientist to receive a Nobel Prize in Chemistry-related structural biology?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (2009).
1765. Who discovered prions?
Stanley Prusiner.
1766. Who developed the first successful in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) technique?
Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe.
1767. Who discovered the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi.
1768. Who developed the foundational work for mRNA vaccines?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman.
1769. Who discovered microRNAs?
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun.
1770. Who discovered RNA interference?
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello.
1771. Who discovered telomerase?
Elizabeth Blackburn and Carol Greider.
1772. Who proposed the planetary model of the atom after the gold-foil experiment?
Ernest Rutherford.
1773. Who discovered the positron?
Carl Anderson.
1774. Who predicted the Higgs boson?
Peter Higgs and François Englert (among others).
1775. Who experimentally confirmed the Higgs boson in 2012?
ATLAS and CMS teams at CERN.
1776. Who developed the first nuclear reactor?
Enrico Fermi.
1777. Who is known as the scientific director of the Manhattan Project?
J. Robert Oppenheimer.
1778. Who discovered nuclear fission?
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann (explained by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch).
1779. Who provided the theoretical explanation of nuclear fission?
Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch.
1780. Who invented the cyclotron?
Ernest Lawrence.
1781. Who discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
1782. Who proposed the inflationary model of the early universe?
Alan Guth.
1783. Who discovered pulsars?
Jocelyn Bell Burnell.
1784. Who provided key evidence for dark matter through galaxy rotation curves?
Vera Rubin.
1785. Who discovered that the expansion of the universe is accelerating?
Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt and Adam Riess.
1786. Who detected gravitational waves for the first time?
LIGO Scientific Collaboration (2015).
1787. Who developed the mathematical theory of black hole singularities?
Roger Penrose.
1788. Who provided evidence for the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel.
1789. Who invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley.
1790. Who invented the first working laser?
Theodore Maiman.
1791. Who discovered graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.
1792. Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
1793. Who invented the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska.
1794. Who discovered the first fullerenes (C60 or buckyballs)?
Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley and Robert Curl.
1795. Who developed the density functional theory widely used in chemistry and physics?
Walter Kohn.
1796. Who is known for the chemiosmotic theory of ATP formation?
Peter Mitchell.
1797. Who discovered the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis?
Melvin Calvin.
1798. Who proposed the concept of the ecological footprint or related modern environmental ideas building on earlier work?
Many scientists; foundational climate work by Svante Arrhenius.
1799. Who first calculated the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide?
Svante Arrhenius.
1800. Who is regarded as one of the most influential scientists for both fundamental physics and modern technology, having contributed to relativity, quantum theory and the photoelectric effect?
Albert Einstein.
Government Jobs in India for Foreigners |
Eligibility, Visa Rules & Apply Online Guide
1801. Who established the Indian Space Research Organisation’s foundational vision and is called the Father of the Indian Space Programme?
Vikram Sarabhai.
1802. Who launched India’s first satellite Aryabhata?
ISRO under the leadership that began with Vikram Sarabhai.
1803. Who is known for developing India’s satellite launch vehicles and later became the President of India?
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
1804. Who discovered the Raman Effect in 1928?
C.V. Raman.
1805. Who was the first Indian Nobel laureate in Science?
C.V. Raman.
1806. Who proposed the Bose-Einstein condensate theory with Albert Einstein?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1807. Who gave the statistical description of particles that later came to be called bosons?
Satyendra Nath Bose.
1808. Who calculated the upper mass limit for white dwarf stars?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1809. Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of stars?
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
1810. Who formulated the Saha ionisation equation?
Meghnad Saha.
1811. Who is regarded as the Father of Indian Nuclear Science?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1812. Who founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)?
Homi J. Bhabha.
1813. Who is known as the Father of Indian Chemistry?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1814. Who started the first pharmaceutical company in India (Bengal Chemicals)?
Prafulla Chandra Ray.
1815. Who showed that plants have life and respond to external stimuli?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1816. Who invented an instrument called the crescograph to measure plant growth?
Jagadish Chandra Bose.
1817. Who is known as the Father of the Green Revolution in India?
M.S. Swaminathan.
1818. Who worked extensively on the cytogenetics of sugarcane and was one of the first Indian women scientists of international repute?
Janaki Ammal.
1819. Who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system?
Nicolaus Copernicus.
1820. Who improved the telescope and discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter?
Galileo Galilei.
1821. Who formulated the three laws of planetary motion?
Johannes Kepler.
1822. Who wrote Principia Mathematica and gave the laws of motion?
Isaac Newton.
1823. Who discovered the composition of white light and invented the reflecting telescope?
Isaac Newton.
1824. Who proposed the Special Theory of Relativity in 1905?
Albert Einstein.
1825. Who proposed the General Theory of Relativity in 1915?
Albert Einstein.
1826. Who explained the photoelectric effect and received the Nobel Prize for it?
Albert Einstein.
1827. Who discovered the electron in 1897?
J.J. Thomson.
1828. Who proposed the plum-pudding model of the atom?
J.J. Thomson.
1829. Who conducted the gold-foil experiment?
Ernest Rutherford.
1830. Who discovered the nucleus of the atom?
Ernest Rutherford.
1831. Who proposed the Bohr model of the atom?
Niels Bohr.
1832. Who discovered the neutron in 1932?
James Chadwick.
1833. Who gave the uncertainty principle?
Werner Heisenberg.
1834. Who formulated the famous wave equation in quantum mechanics?
Erwin Schrödinger.
1835. Who predicted the existence of the positron?
Paul Dirac.
1836. Who discovered the positron experimentally?
Carl Anderson.
1837. Who is known for Feynman diagrams?
Richard Feynman.
1838. Who developed quantum electrodynamics along with others?
Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.
1839. Who proposed the quark model of matter?
Murray Gell-Mann.
1840. Who predicted the Higgs boson?
Peter Higgs.
1841. Who discovered radioactivity in 1896?
Henri Becquerel.
1842. Who coined the term radioactivity and discovered radium and polonium?
Marie Curie.
1843. Who was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize?
Marie Curie.
1844. Who won Nobel Prizes in both Physics and Chemistry?
Marie Curie.
1845. Who proposed the periodic table in 1869?
Dmitri Mendeleev.
1846. Who is known as the Father of Modern Chemistry?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1847. Who discovered oxygen and hydrogen’s role in combustion and named them?
Antoine Lavoisier.
1848. Who discovered electromagnetic induction?
Michael Faraday.
1849. Who gave the laws of electrolysis?
Michael Faraday.
1850. Who formulated Maxwell’s equations?
James Clerk Maxwell.
1851. Who invented the first electric battery?
Alessandro Volta.
1852. Who discovered X-rays in 1895?
Wilhelm Röntgen.
1853. Who received the first Nobel Prize in Physics?
Wilhelm Röntgen.
1854. Who discovered penicillin in 1928?
Alexander Fleming.
1855. Who developed methods to purify and mass-produce penicillin?
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
1856. Who discovered the tuberculosis bacterium?
Robert Koch.
1857. Who gave Koch’s postulates?
Robert Koch.
1858. Who developed the process of pasteurisation?
Louis Pasteur.
1859. Who developed the first rabies vaccine?
Louis Pasteur.
1860. Who developed the first smallpox vaccine?
Edward Jenner.
1861. Who proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection?
Charles Darwin.
1862. Who wrote “On the Origin of Species”?
Charles Darwin.
1863. Who is known as the Father of Genetics?
Gregor Mendel.
1864. Who discovered the laws of inheritance using pea plants?
Gregor Mendel.
1865. Who discovered the double helical structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick.
1866. Who took the famous Photo 51 of DNA?
Rosalind Franklin.
1867. Who developed the Sanger method of DNA sequencing?
Frederick Sanger.
1868. Who invented PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)?
Kary Mullis.
1869. Who discovered reverse transcriptase?
Howard Temin and David Baltimore.
1870. Who proposed the central dogma of molecular biology?
Francis Crick.
1871. Who developed CRISPR-Cas9 as a gene-editing tool?
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier.
1872. Who discovered artemisinin for malaria treatment?
Tu Youyou.
1873. Who is known as the Father of Hybrid Rice?
Yuan Longping.
1874. Who invented the World Wide Web?
Tim Berners-Lee.
1875. Who is regarded as the world’s first computer programmer?
Ada Lovelace.
1876. Who proposed the Turing Test?
Alan Turing.
1877. Who designed the Analytical Engine?
Charles Babbage.
1878. Who discovered the expansion of the universe?
Edwin Hubble.
1879. Who proposed the Big Bang theory?
Georges Lemaître.
1880. Who discovered cosmic microwave background radiation?
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
1881. Who predicted Hawking radiation?
Stephen Hawking.
1882. Who wrote “A Brief History of Time”?
Stephen Hawking.
1883. Who discovered the first exoplanet around a normal star?
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.
1884. Who provided evidence for a supermassive black hole at the centre of our galaxy?
Andrea Ghez and Reinhard Genzel.
1885. Who developed the theory of black hole singularities?
Roger Penrose.
1886. Who detected gravitational waves in 2015?
LIGO team.
1887. Who invented the transistor?
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley.
1888. Who built the first working laser?
Theodore Maiman.
1889. Who discovered graphene?
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.
1890. Who invented the scanning tunneling microscope?
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.
1891. Who invented the electron microscope?
Ernst Ruska.
1892. Who discovered fullerenes?
Harold Kroto, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley.
1893. Who developed the first successful polio vaccine (injectable)?
Jonas Salk.
1894. Who developed the oral polio vaccine?
Albert Sabin.
1895. Who discovered insulin?
Frederick Banting and Charles Best.
1896. Who discovered the ABO blood groups?
Karl Landsteiner.
1897. Who developed the first successful vaccine for hepatitis B?
Baruch Blumberg and later teams.
1898. Who discovered the hepatitis C virus?
Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles Rice.
1899. Who developed the foundational technology for mRNA vaccines?
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman.
1900. Who discovered the structure of the ribosome and shared the Nobel Prize in 2009?
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (along with Thomas Steitz and Ada Yonath).
Boost
Your General Knowledge: Download 2500+ Essential GK Questions & Answers
(Part 1)
Frequently Asked Questions About Important Scientists and Their Discoveries
1. Who are some of the most important scientists in world history?
Some of the most important scientists include Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton, Marie Curie, Charles Darwin, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr, Alexander Fleming, Louis Pasteur, Gregor Mendel, Stephen Hawking and many others.
2. Why are scientists and their discoveries important for exams?
Scientists and their discoveries are important topics in General Science GK and are commonly useful for competitive examinations, entrance tests, civil services examinations, academic quizzes and other global exam preparations.
3. Who is known for the theory of relativity?
Albert Einstein is famous for developing the special and general theories of relativity, which fundamentally changed our understanding of space, time, gravity and the universe.
4. What is Isaac Newton famous for?
Isaac Newton is famous for his laws of motion and universal gravitation. He also made major contributions to mathematics, optics and the study of light.
5. Who discovered the Raman Effect?
Indian physicist C. V. Raman discovered the Raman Effect, a phenomenon involving the scattering of light by matter. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.
6. Who are some famous Indian scientists?
Important Indian scientists include C. V. Raman, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Homi J. Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, S. N. Bose, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Meghnad Saha, P. C. Ray, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and M. S. Swaminathan.
7. Who discovered penicillin?
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. His discovery became an important milestone in the development of antibiotic medicine.
8. Who are associated with the discovery of the structure of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick are widely associated with proposing the double-helix model of DNA. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction work provided important evidence that contributed to understanding DNA's structure.
9. Which scientists are important for Physics, Chemistry and Biology GK?
Physics GK includes scientists such as Einstein, Newton, Galileo, Faraday, Maxwell, Rutherford and Bohr. Chemistry-related GK includes Marie Curie, Lavoisier and other major researchers, while Biology GK includes Darwin, Mendel, Pasteur, Fleming and many other influential scientists.
10. How can students prepare Scientists and Their Discoveries for exams?
Students can prepare by learning the scientist's name, country or field, major discovery or contribution, important dates where relevant, and associated awards such as the Nobel Prize. Regular revision and practice of Science GK questions can also help strengthen exam preparation.
Looking for Global Opportunities?
Explore Latest International Jobs Here!
Conclusion
Important Scientists and Their Discoveries is a valuable topic for Global Science GK, General Knowledge, competitive exams, civil services examinations, entrance tests and academic preparation. This collection brings together major scientists from different countries and scientific fields, including Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Medicine, Astronomy and Space Science. It also highlights internationally recognised Indian scientists such as C. V. Raman, Homi Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, S. N. Bose, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Meghnad Saha and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Learning these scientist-discovery facts can help global students and jobseekers build a stronger foundation in Science GK Questions, Famous Scientists, Scientific Discoveries, World Scientists and Exam-Oriented General Science.
Take a Quick Break from Exam Prep!
👉 Read our latest Health & Lifestyle tip for aspirants here.
Disclaimer
This article is provided for educational, informational and general knowledge purposes only. Scientist names, discoveries and contributions have been summarised for exam preparation and may involve complex historical or scientific contexts. Students and jobseekers should verify specific facts, dates, awards and scientific contributions from authoritative academic, institutional or official sources when preparing for important examinations. This content does not guarantee success in any examination or recruitment process.
👉 Follow us for fastest updates:
Pinterest, LinkedIn, Facebook, Telegram, Instagram, Facebook Page
